The Electoral System and Structure of South Sudan (1900–2025): A Historical Overview-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, only gained independence in 2011. Prior to that, the region was a part of Sudan and had no autonomous electoral framework of its own. Therefore, analysing South Sudan’s electoral system from 1900 to 2025 requires a bifurcated approach: (1) the electoral structure of southern Sudan under colonial and Sudanese rule (1900–2010), and (2) the electoral system of independent South Sudan (2011–2025).

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, only gained independence in 2011. Prior to that, the region was a part of Sudan and had no autonomous electoral framework of its own. Therefore, analysing South Sudan’s electoral system from 1900 to 2025 requires a bifurcated approach: (1) the electoral structure of southern Sudan under colonial and Sudanese rule (1900–2010), and (2) the electoral system of independent South Sudan (2011–2025).

Electoral Governance Before Independence (1900–2010)

Colonial Era (1900–1956)

During the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899–1956), Sudan – including its southern region – was governed under colonial administrative structures. The south was marginalised politically and developmentally, with no participatory electoral system for local populations. British authorities governed through indirect rule, appointing chiefs and administrators, with no formal elections.

1948 Legislative Assembly Election (Sudan)
In 1948, Sudan conducted its first legislative elections. These used an indirect system where provincial councils selected representatives. Southern Sudanese representation was minimal and largely symbolic. There was no real suffrage, especially for the southern population, who remained disenfranchised.

Post-Independence Sudan (1956–2010)

After Sudan gained independence in 1956, several national elections occurred, but southern participation remained fraught due to civil conflict, marginalisation, and administrative neglect.

Type of Voting: The national electoral system in Sudan intermittently combined First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) and indirect selection, depending on the military or civilian regimes in power.

Representation: Southern voices were often underrepresented, and civil wars (1955–1972 and 1983–2005) significantly disrupted democratic processes.

2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) & Autonomy

A turning point came with the CPA, which ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. It led to the creation of the Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS) and laid the groundwork for autonomous elections.

2010 Sudan General Elections
These were held under the CPA. Southern Sudan used a mixed electoral system:

Proportional Representation (PR) for party lists (at regional and national levels)

FPTP for geographical constituencies
This dual system ensured both local representation and party inclusivity. The elections paved the way for the 2011 independence referendum.

Electoral System in Independent South Sudan (2011–2025)

2011 Referendum on Independence

In January 2011, a historic referendum was held, with a simple majority required for independence. The vote used direct universal suffrage, and nearly 99% voted for secession.

Voting Method: Single-choice ballot, simple majority.

Electoral Body: South Sudan Referendum Commission (SSRC)

 Post-Independence Electoral Plans (2011–2025)

South Sudan’s 2011 Transitional Constitution called for multiparty democracy, regular elections, and the establishment of the National Elections Commission (NEC). However, due to internal conflict and instability, no general elections were held between 2011 and 2024.

 Electoral Framework (Intended Structure)

Despite delays, the adopted electoral framework has consistently envisioned a mixed system, combining:

FPTP for 60% of seats in geographical constituencies

Proportional Representation for 40% of seats based on party lists (national and women’s quotas)

This hybrid aims to promote inclusivity, geographical balance, and gender representation.

Planned 2024 General Elections (Postponed)

Originally scheduled for December 2024, the general elections were intended to be South Sudan's first fully democratic polls since independence. The structure was to include:

Presidential election via simple majority (run-off if needed)

National Legislative Assembly elections under the mixed system
However, logistical, legal, and security hurdles led to postponement.



From colonial neglect to post-conflict aspirations, South Sudan’s electoral system has evolved from non-existent representation to a mixed electoral framework combining FPTP and PR. While democratic implementation has been delayed due to internal challenges, the institutional vision reflects a commitment to broad-based participation. If future elections are conducted as planned, South Sudan may yet realise its democratic potential.

When Did South Sudan Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

South Sudan’s path to democracy and multiparty politics is deeply rooted in its long and bloody struggle for independence from Sudan. While South Sudan only became an independent nation in 2011, its democratic journey—marked by both promise and pitfalls—started much earlier, with significant developments emerging during the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) era.

The Precursor: The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005)

South Sudan’s move towards multiparty politics began not with independence, but with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on 9 January 2005 between the Sudanese government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). The CPA granted Southern Sudan a six-year period of autonomy and the right to hold a referendum on independence, which laid the groundwork for a more inclusive political structure.

One of the CPA’s major provisions was the recognition of political pluralism in both North and South Sudan. It enabled the creation of a Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS), with the SPLM as the dominant party but with space—at least nominally—for other political actors.

The 2010 Elections: A Test of Multipartyism

In April 2010, Sudan held its first multi-party general elections in 24 years. Although deeply flawed, this election was significant for South Sudan. It included voting for:

The President of the Government of Southern Sudan

State Governors

Members of state assemblies

Salva Kiir Mayardit, leader of the SPLM, won the presidency of the Government of Southern Sudan with over 90% of the vote. While the elections were marred by logistical issues, intimidation, and accusations of fraud, they did mark the first time South Sudanese citizens participated in a multiparty electoral process—albeit under the Sudanese national framework.

2011 Referendum and Independence

On 9 January 2011, South Sudan held a referendum on independence, where nearly 99% of voters supported secession. The peaceful conduct of this referendum—considered largely free and fair by international observers—was hailed as a democratic milestone.

Following the official declaration of independence on 9 July 2011, South Sudan adopted a Transitional Constitution, which enshrined multiparty democracy, fundamental rights, and separation of powers. The SPLM, however, remained the overwhelmingly dominant party, and the political space for opposition remained limited in practice.

The Democratic Setback: Civil War and Political Repression

Despite constitutional guarantees, South Sudan’s democratic trajectory stalled rapidly. A political dispute between President Salva Kiir and his then-deputy Riek Machar escalated into a full-blown civil war in December 2013, splitting the SPLM and causing widespread violence.

During and after the war, opposition parties and civil society faced severe repression, including arrests, intimidation, and censorship. Elections scheduled for 2015 were repeatedly postponed, and as of 2025, South Sudan has never held a national election as an independent country.

The Road Ahead

After years of intermittent peace agreements, the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS) was signed in 2018, calling for a transitional government and elections after 3 years. However, implementation delays have pushed the promised elections to 2024, and now further to 2025.

In conclusion, while South Sudan officially transitioned to a multiparty democratic framework in 2011, following independence and the adoption of a transitional constitution, the practical realisation of democracy has been hampered by conflict, political dominance by the SPLM, and delayed elections. The country's first real democratic test as an independent state is still pending, making South Sudan a democracy more in principle than in practice—at least for now.

National Election Results and Political Outcomes in South Sudan (1900–2025)

South Sudan’s electoral history is largely limited to the period following its independence in 2011. Prior to that, the region was part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and later Sudan, thus any electoral data before 2011 corresponds to broader Sudanese national frameworks rather than to South Sudan as a distinct political entity.

Post-independence, South Sudan has held only a limited number of electoral events, with most national governance driven by transitional and peace agreements amid recurring conflict. Nonetheless, where elections were held or planned, we detail below the political outcomes, party distributions, and voter participation.

2011 – Independence Referendum

Type: Referendum (self-determination)

Question: "Do you want South Sudan to remain a part of Sudan, or become an independent country?"

Results:

Yes for Independence: 98.83%

No: 1.17%

Voter Turnout: 97.58%

Outcome: Overwhelming support for independence. On 9 July 2011, South Sudan officially became an independent nation.

 2015 – Scheduled General Elections (Postponed)

Status: Postponed due to civil conflict and the collapse of the 2013 peace process.

Original Plan: Elections for President, National Legislature, and State Assemblies.

Outcome: No elections were held; President Salva Kiir remained in power by extension via legislative resolutions and transitional agreements.

2018–2020 – Peace Negotiations and Electoral Delays

Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS): Signed in September 2018, calling for elections in 2022, later deferred.

Transitional Government of National Unity (TGoNU) formed in 2020.

Main Political Parties Involved:

Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) – Salva Kiir

Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition (SPLM-IO) – Riek Machar

South Sudan Opposition Alliance (SSOA)

Other Armed Groups and Civil Society

 2024/2025 – Upcoming Elections (Tentatively Scheduled)

Planned Date: December 2024 or early 2025

Offices to be Contested:

President

National Legislature

State Governors and State Assemblies

Expected Main Parties:

SPLM (Salva Kiir)

SPLM-IO (Riek Machar)

SSOA (multi-group coalition)

People's Liberal Party, National Democratic Movement, etc.

Challenges:

Delayed census and constituency demarcation

Incomplete electoral law implementation

Displacement and insecurity

Lack of funding and technical capacity

As of mid-2025, no confirmed national election results are available post-independence, due to postponements and the fragile political climate.

Summary Table

Year

Type

Held?

Voter Turnout

Winning Party / Result

Notes

2011

Referendum

✅ Yes

97.6%

98.8% voted for Independence

Marked foundation of South Sudan

2015

General Election

❌ No

N/A

N/A

Postponed due to civil war

2024

General Election

❌ No*

N/A

N/A

Planned for late 2024, delayed again



Between 2011 and 2025, South Sudan’s electoral evolution has been hindered by conflict, lack of infrastructure, and political fragmentation. The only national-level vote held was the 2011 independence referendum, overwhelmingly favouring secession. While general elections have been repeatedly delayed, the 2024/2025 electoral cycle, if successfully conducted, may mark the first democratic transfer of power in the young nation’s history.

The Political Landscape of South Sudan (1900–2025): Major Parties, Leaders, and Electoral Outcomes

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, gained independence from Sudan in July 2011. Prior to that, the territory was part of Sudan and did not hold independent elections. Therefore, the political evolution of South Sudan from 1900 to 2025 is best understood in two distinct phases: the pre-independence period under Sudanese rule, and the post-independence period from 2011 onwards.

Pre-Independence Context (1900–2011)

Before 2011, South Sudan was governed under the broader Sudanese state, where it experienced chronic marginalisation and civil war. During this time, Southern political representation was minimal. However, a few significant southern movements emerged:

Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM)

Leader: Dr. John Garang (until his death in 2005)

Legacy: Founded in 1983, the SPLM was both a rebel movement and a political organisation, leading the fight for autonomy and later independence.

Although there were no democratic elections exclusive to South Sudan, the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) granted the South regional autonomy and led to a historic referendum in 2011.

The 2011 Referendum and Independence

Referendum Date: 9–15 January 2011

Outcome:

Yes to Independence: 98.83%

Voter Turnout: Over 97%

This overwhelming vote led to the official declaration of independence on 9 July 2011. The SPLM became the ruling party of the new nation.

Post-Independence Elections and Political Dynamics (2011–2025)

Since independence, South Sudan has faced significant political instability, including a brutal civil war beginning in December 2013. Elections were repeatedly postponed due to insecurity and power-sharing negotiations. Nevertheless, a few parties and figures have defined the post-independence political space:

Major Political Parties and Leaders

Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM)

Key Figures:

Salva Kiir Mayardit – President since independence

John Garang – Founding father of SPLM

Position: Ruling party since 2011

Ideology: Nationalism, decentralisation, post-conflict reconstruction

SPLM-In-Opposition (SPLM-IO)

Leader: Dr. Riek Machar

Formed: 2013 following political disputes with Salva Kiir

Role: Rebel movement turned peace partner under transitional arrangements

South Sudan Opposition Alliance (SSOA)

Leaders: Varied coalition leadership

Formed: 2018 as a coalition of smaller opposition parties

Aim: Federalism, democratic reform, decentralisation

National Democratic Movement (NDM)

Leader: Dr. Lam Akol

Split From: SPLM in 2009

Focus: Broad-based reform and political inclusion

Postponed General Elections (Planned 2024/2025)

Despite gaining independence in 2011, South Sudan had not held a full democratic general election as of early 2025. Originally scheduled for 2015, elections were repeatedly delayed due to civil war, displacement, and political impasse. The first general elections are expected in December 2024 or early 2025, as per the 2018 Revitalised Peace Agreement.

Likely Candidates:

Salva Kiir (SPLM)

Riek Machar (SPLM-IO)

Various opposition figures from SSOA and NDM

Expected Voter Issues:

Peace and security

Ethnic reconciliation

Federalism and decentralisation

Economic recovery



From 1900 to 2025, South Sudan's political journey has transitioned from colonial marginalisation and war under Sudan to fragile independence and contested nation-building. The SPLM remains the dominant force, though internal splits have fractured its hold. As the country prepares for its first democratic general elections, the outcome will shape the future of peace, governance, and national unity in South Sudan. The world will be watching closely to see if the 2024/2025 polls deliver stability or renewed discord.

Electoral Violence & Irregularities in South Sudan (1900–2025)

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, officially became independent in July 2011. As such, its electoral history is relatively brief but has been marred by delays, administrative irregularities, violence, and political boycotts. While no elections took place during the colonial period (1900–1956) or the protracted Sudanese civil wars, the post-independence period reveals a fragile and troubled democratic trajectory.

Reported Electoral Irregularities & Violence (2011–2025)

Absence of National Elections Post-Independence (2011–2020)
Following independence in 2011, South Sudan was expected to hold general elections in 2015. However, due to the outbreak of civil war in December 2013, the transitional government repeatedly delayed elections. These delays sparked public discontent and allegations of power consolidation by the ruling SPLM (Sudan People’s Liberation Movement).

Civil War & Political Violence (2013–2018)
The conflict between President Salva Kiir and former Vice President Riek Machar led to widespread violence, human rights abuses, and a breakdown in political trust. Although not tied to a specific election, the environment severely undermined the prospects of free and fair voting. In areas like Unity State and Jonglei, political affiliations became flashpoints for intercommunal violence, effectively silencing opposition and disenfranchising voters.

Local Elections – Delayed & Contested
Local elections were supposed to occur as part of the 2018 Revitalised Peace Agreement. However, due to funding issues, insecurity, and administrative weaknesses, these elections were also postponed indefinitely. Where local voting did take place informally, reports emerged of voter intimidation, vote buying, and poor oversight.

Suppression of Civil Society & Media
Throughout the 2010s and early 2020s, journalists and civil society actors were harassed or detained for criticising the electoral process. The National Security Service (NSS) was frequently accused of monitoring opposition figures and disrupting public gatherings, contributing to an atmosphere of fear and limiting political expression.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections (1900–2025)

Year

Event

Details

2015

Delayed General Election

Originally scheduled but postponed due to civil war. The National Legislative Assembly extended President Kiir’s term without a vote.

2018

Local Elections Delayed

As part of the peace deal, local government elections were to be held but were postponed due to instability.

2023

Further Delays Announced

General elections planned for 2023 were again postponed, citing lack of security and unresolved constitutional frameworks.

2024

Boycotts by Opposition

Elements of the opposition, including SPLM-IO, threatened to boycott the process unless reforms were implemented.

2025

Planned General Election

As of mid-2025, the national elections are tentatively scheduled for late 2025, amid concerns about voter registration, press freedom, and inclusive participation. Whether they proceed on schedule remains uncertain.



South Sudan’s electoral process between 2011 and 2025 has been characterised more by postponements and political instability than by actual competitive elections. Violence and irregularities have not just impacted voting days but have shaped the entire political environment, reinforcing autocratic tendencies and undermining public trust. As the country moves towards its first genuine general election in 2025, observers remain cautious. Much will depend on the ability of all stakeholders to create a peaceful, transparent, and inclusive process—a test South Sudan has yet to pass.

South Sudan’s Democracy Index and Electoral Reforms: A Timeline from 1900 to 2025

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, only came into existence in 2011, making its journey with electoral democracy a relatively recent and turbulent one. While the broader timeframe of 1900 to 2025 includes the colonial period and the country’s long entanglement within Sudan’s political framework, true democratic evaluation begins post-independence. This article explores South Sudan’s performance on the democracy index, key reform attempts, and instances of backsliding.

Pre-Independence Context (1900–2011)

For much of the 20th century, the southern region of present-day South Sudan was governed under colonial rule by Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956), followed by decades of civil conflict and marginalisation under the Khartoum-based governments. Electoral democracy, in any substantive form, was absent. The people of South Sudan endured two major civil wars (1955–1972 and 1983–2005), which severely stunted the development of participatory governance.

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2005 laid the groundwork for autonomy and eventual self-determination, culminating in a 2011 referendum where nearly 99% voted for independence. This marked the first genuine exercise in electoral choice for South Sudanese citizens.

Post-Independence Electoral Developments (2011–2025)

Early Promise and Democratic Aspirations (2011–2013)

Following independence in July 2011, South Sudan was declared a republic with a transitional constitution. The new nation was initially celebrated for its democratic potential. The transitional government promised elections by 2015, and there was some initial political pluralism, albeit within a highly centralised system under the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM).

Conflict and Democratic Backsliding (2013–2018)

In December 2013, a political power struggle between President Salva Kiir and Vice President Riek Machar spiralled into civil war, killing hundreds of thousands and displacing millions. This period saw a near-total collapse of democratic norms:

Elections were postponed indefinitely.

The state ruled under a perpetual state of emergency.

Opposition voices were silenced or exiled.

Media freedom and civil liberties were severely curtailed.

By this point, South Sudan ranked extremely low on the global democracy indices, often being categorised as an "authoritarian regime" by institutions such as the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU).

Attempts at Reform: Revitalised Peace and Institutional Promises (2018–2022)

The Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS), signed in 2018, included commitments to:

Form a unity government.

Draft a permanent constitution.

Conduct national elections within three years.

While these pledges signalled a move towards democratic restoration, implementation lagged. The transitional government was finally formed in early 2020, but infighting, logistical challenges, and trust deficits plagued progress.

Electoral Outlook and Governance Score (2023–2025)

Although general elections were repeatedly delayed, 2024 and 2025 became pivotal years in international pressure and domestic push for accountability. According to provisional democracy rankings:

South Sudan remained in the bottom quartile globally.

The Freedom House consistently rated it as “Not Free”, with low scores for political rights and civil liberties.

The EIU Democracy Index placed it as one of the lowest-ranking countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Despite this, there were some reformative sparks:

Civil society engagement increased, especially among youth and women.

Constitutional drafting continued with input from grassroots organisations.

Electoral commission structures were tentatively put in place.

Fragile but Not Forgotten

From 1900 to 2025, South Sudan's journey towards electoral democracy has been shaped more by conflict than constitutionalism. While reforms have been pledged and partially enacted, the realities on the ground—conflict, elite domination, and institutional weakness—continue to hinder meaningful progress.

Nonetheless, the aspiration for democratic governance among ordinary South Sudanese remains strong. The international community and regional actors must continue to support a peaceful and inclusive transition, especially as the prospect of long-delayed elections looms on the horizon.

Sources:

Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) Democracy Index Reports

Freedom House Annual Scores

UNMISS and AU Commission reports on South Sudan

South Sudan Civil Society Forum publications

Revitalised Peace Agreement (R-ARCSS) Documents

Major Electoral Reforms in South Sudan from 1900 to 2025

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, officially gained independence from Sudan in July 2011. Prior to that, the region experienced a protracted history of civil wars, marginalisation, and limited political rights under Sudanese rule. As a result, electoral reforms in South Sudan only truly began to materialise in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This article outlines the key reforms that have shaped South Sudan’s electoral framework from 1900 to 2025.

Pre-Independence Electoral Landscape (1900–2005)

Before South Sudan's autonomy, the region was under colonial and then northern Sudanese control. During this period, the southern population was largely excluded from meaningful electoral participation.

British Colonial Rule (1899–1956): Electoral activity was virtually non-existent in southern Sudan. The British favoured indirect rule through tribal chiefs, stifling political mobilisation.

Post-Independence Sudan (1956–2005): Successive governments in Khartoum marginalised the South. Limited elections held at the national level often excluded or suppressed southern political voices.

Comprehensive Peace Agreement and the 2005 Interim Constitution

The first major step towards electoral reform came with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) signed in 2005 between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and the Sudanese government.

2005 Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan (ICSS):

Introduced multi-party democracy in the semi-autonomous region.

Established the Southern Sudan Referendum Commission.

Created the National Elections Commission to oversee elections for both North and South.

Outlined fundamental political freedoms: universal suffrage, the right to vote and stand for office, and the right to form political parties.

These reforms led to the 2010 Sudanese general elections, in which South Sudan participated, and paved the way for the 2011 independence referendum.

Post-Independence Electoral Framework (2011–2025)

Following its independence on 9 July 2011, South Sudan undertook a new era of nation-building and electoral institution formation.

2011 Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan

Democratic Foundations: Enshrined the principles of electoral democracy, political pluralism, and term limits for elected officials.

Electoral Bodies: Mandated the formation of a National Elections Commission and Political Parties Council.

Eligibility Reforms: Codified the right to vote for all citizens aged 18 and over.

However, political instability delayed democratic consolidation.

Reform Challenges and Stalled Elections (2013–2018)

Civil war erupted in 2013, halting any electoral progress. The transitional government was plagued by fragmentation, making reform difficult.

2015 Elections Postponed: Originally scheduled for July 2015, elections were delayed due to insecurity and logistical issues.

No Elections Held (2011–2023): Despite constitutional mandates, no national elections took place within the first decade of independence.

Revitalised Peace Agreement and the Road to Reform (2018–2025)

The Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS), signed in 2018, aimed to restart democratic reforms.

Key Electoral Commitments:

Reconstitution of the National Elections Commission (NEC): To ensure independence, inclusivity, and technical capacity.

Civic and Voter Education Programmes: Initiated in collaboration with international bodies to increase voter awareness.

Political Parties Act Revisions: Reforms to allow greater registration and participation of parties, including opposition movements.

2023–2025 Preparatory Measures:

Drafting a Permanent Constitution (Ongoing): Replacing the 2011 Transitional Constitution to better define the electoral process.

Census and Voter Registry (2022–2024): The first nationwide census in over a decade launched to facilitate credible elections.

Planned General Elections (December 2024, now tentatively 2025): Preparations continue despite delays, with a focus on transparency and inclusivity.



From colonial subjugation to a fledgling democracy, South Sudan’s electoral journey has been tumultuous and delayed by conflict. However, the reforms introduced post-2005 – particularly through the CPA, the 2011 Constitution, and the 2018 Peace Agreement – laid the groundwork for a democratic system. While challenges remain, particularly in implementing timely elections and ensuring peace, the framework for electoral reform is now in place. The 2025 general elections may serve as a decisive moment for South Sudan’s democratic credibility.

Sources:

Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005)

Transitional Constitution of South Sudan (2011)

Revitalised Peace Agreement (2018)

UNMISS, African Union Reports

National Democratic Institute (NDI) Publications

A Comparative Analysis of South Sudan’s Electoral Systems (1900–2025): Which Era Was More Democratic?

When assessing the democratic nature of a country's electoral system, one must consider several dimensions: political pluralism, electoral competitiveness, voter participation, legal frameworks, and institutional transparency. While comparing South Sudan with itself across the timeframe of 1900 to 2025 may seem paradoxical—especially given that the modern state of South Sudan only came into being in 2011—the exercise proves useful in analysing the progression (or stagnation) of electoral democracy within the region over time.

Pre-Independence Period (1900–2011): Colonial Control and Northern Domination

Prior to independence, South Sudan was part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) and later the Republic of Sudan. During this extended period, electoral politics in the South were either non-existent or heavily manipulated by northern elites.

Colonial Era (1900–1956): No democratic institutions existed. Governance was exercised through indirect rule, with British authorities appointing chiefs and local administrators. Electoral representation for southerners in the Sudanese context was negligible, and political participation was virtually nil.

Post-Independence Sudan (1956–2011): Although Sudan held intermittent elections, South Sudanese participation was structurally marginalised. Representation in the national parliament was limited, and the lack of genuine autonomy meant democratic expression in the South remained stifled. Civil wars (1955–1972 and 1983–2005) further eroded political rights, and military regimes in Khartoum often suspended electoral activities altogether.

In short, between 1900 and 2011, South Sudanese citizens lacked agency in shaping their political destiny. Elections, where held, were tokenistic at best and inaccessible to the Southern population at worst.

Post-Independence Electoral Framework (2011–2025): A Fragile Path to Democracy

With the independence of South Sudan in July 2011, the promise of self-determination came with high hopes for a homegrown democratic system. However, the transition has been far from smooth.

Legal and Institutional Setup: The Transitional Constitution of 2011 laid the groundwork for multiparty democracy, regular elections, and an independent electoral commission (the National Elections Commission). It recognised civil liberties and guaranteed universal suffrage.

Elections (or Lack Thereof): Despite these constitutional promises, South Sudan has yet to hold a credible general election since independence. The first scheduled elections in 2015 were postponed due to civil war, and subsequent delays have plagued the process.

Democratic Indicators: The 2013–2018 civil war severely undermined democratic institutions. The peace agreements—especially the 2018 Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS)—provided for power-sharing and elections, but their implementation has been inconsistent.

Political Space: While over 40 political parties exist on paper, the dominance of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) and suppression of dissent limit true pluralism. Press freedom is curtailed, and civic space remains constrained.

Which Period Was More Democratic?

In comparative terms, South Sudan’s post-2011 electoral framework is unquestionably more democratic in form than the pre-independence and pre-secession periods. It includes:

A constitutional mandate for elections

Legal protection for voter rights

Institutional frameworks (even if underdeveloped)

However, in practice, the post-independence period has delivered limited democratic outcomes. The absence of national elections, political instability, and weak institutions mean South Sudan has yet to experience functional democracy, despite having the legal structures to support it.

A Democracy in Waiting

From 1900 to 2025, South Sudan has transitioned from colonial neglect to constitutional promise. While the electoral systems of the colonial and unified Sudanese periods were inherently undemocratic for South Sudanese citizens, the post-2011 era offers the potential for democratic governance.

Yet, potential does not equate to practice. Unless South Sudan conducts credible, inclusive elections and strengthens its institutions, its democratic evolution will remain a project deferred. In democratic terms, the post-independence period is more advanced on paper, but not yet realised in substance.

Countries That Held Their First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century and Their Electoral SystemsThe 20th century marked a significant global shift towards electoral democracy. From post-imperial transitions to decolonisation and post-war reconstruction, dozens of countries held their first democratic elections during this century. These inaugural elections were often experimental, reflecting domestic political dynamics and international pressures. This article outlines a selection of such countries, the dates of their first democratic elections, and the electoral systems under which they were conducted.

India (1951–52)

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: Following independence from British rule in 1947, India adopted a parliamentary system. The first general elections were held over several months between 1951 and 1952, making it the largest democratic exercise at that time.

Notable Fact: Over 170 million people were eligible to vote, with widespread literacy challenges requiring unique ballot symbols.

Germany (1919 – Weimar Republic)

System: Proportional Representation (PR)

Context: After World War I and the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany transitioned into the Weimar Republic. The 1919 election for the Weimar National Assembly was the first with universal suffrage, including women.

Notable Fact: This election established one of the most proportional electoral systems of the time.

South Africa (1994)

System: List Proportional Representation

Context: Though South Africa had earlier elections, the 1994 general election was the first inclusive democratic election, ending decades of apartheid.

Notable Fact: Nelson Mandela became the first Black president, and all racial groups could vote freely for the first time.

Japan (1946)

System: Limited multi-member constituencies (Semi-PR system)

Context: After World War II, under U.S. occupation, Japan’s 1946 election was the first to allow universal suffrage, including women.

Notable Fact: The election led to a new democratic constitution enacted in 1947.

Ghana (1951)

System: Mixed – Majoritarian and limited PR

Context: Then called the Gold Coast, Ghana held elections in 1951 under British supervision. This was a step towards full independence (achieved in 1957).

Notable Fact: Kwame Nkrumah’s CPP won by a landslide, marking the rise of pan-African political movements.

Indonesia (1955)

System: Proportional Representation

Context: After independence from Dutch colonial rule, Indonesia held its first general elections in 1955.

Notable Fact: Despite being democratic, political instability soon led to authoritarianism under Suharto.

Nigeria (1959)

System: FPTP in a federal parliamentary system

Context: A British colony until 1960, Nigeria held its first nationwide election in 1959.

Notable Fact: The North-South regional imbalance in the parliament later contributed to civil unrest.

 Israel (1949)

System: National List Proportional Representation

Context: After its establishment in 1948, Israel held its first Knesset election in 1949 using a nationwide PR system.

Notable Fact: Low threshold of 1% encouraged multiparty politics from the outset.

Philippines (1907 – Assembly), 1935 (Presidency)

System: Initially FPTP

Context: As a U.S. colony, the Philippines held assembly elections in 1907, and in 1935, the first presidential election was held under a new constitution.

Notable Fact: One of the earliest in Asia to experiment with democracy, albeit under U.S. influence.

Kenya (1963)

System: FPTP

Context: Kenya’s 1963 general election was held just before independence from Britain.

Notable Fact: Jomo Kenyatta’s KANU party dominated the polls, ushering in majority rule.

Honourable Mentions

Turkey (1950): Moved from single-party rule to competitive multi-party elections under FPTP.

South Korea (1948): First democratic vote post-Japanese occupation, though it later saw cycles of dictatorship.

Sri Lanka (1931): First Asian country to adopt universal suffrage under British rule, using FPTP.



The first democratic elections of the 20th century varied in form and legacy. Some nations embraced proportional representation to ensure inclusivity in diverse societies; others opted for majoritarian systems to ensure stability. These foundational elections were not just political milestones but also cultural and historical markers of each country’s journey towards modern governance.

As the century progressed, these democratic experiments were tested by coups, wars, and authoritarian regressions—but the seeds of representative politics had been firmly planted.

A Timeline of Major Elections in South Sudan (1900–2025): Key Political Turning Points

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, has had a complex and turbulent political history shaped by colonisation, civil war, and the long struggle for self-determination. While formal electoral processes only began to emerge in the late 20th century, several milestones mark the path towards electoral democracy. Below is a chronological timeline of key elections and political turning points from 1900 to 2025.

Timeline of Major Elections and Political Milestones

1900–1955: Colonial Rule and Absence of Democratic Structures

Context: South Sudan was administered as part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956). During this period, no formal elections took place in the south. Political participation was restricted, and administration was largely indirect through tribal chiefs.

1956: Sudan’s Independence

Event: On 1 January 1956, Sudan gained independence from British-Egyptian rule. However, power was concentrated in the north, fuelling southern discontent.

Impact: The lack of inclusion of southern Sudanese in national politics sowed the seeds of the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972).

1972: Addis Ababa Agreement

Event: Ended the First Civil War and granted limited autonomy to Southern Sudan.

Note: This led to the establishment of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region, but no direct democratic elections were held during this autonomy phase.

1983–2005: Second Sudanese Civil War

Event: War reignited following the cancellation of southern autonomy and the imposition of Sharia law.

Significance: The Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) emerged as the main southern resistance movement, advocating for self-determination.

2005: Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)

Turning Point: Signed between the Sudanese government and SPLM, ending decades of conflict.

Provisions:

Established the Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS).

Guaranteed a referendum on independence in 2011.

Introduced limited democratic structures and paved the way for electoral processes.

2010: Sudan General Elections

Date: April 2010

Details: First multiparty elections in Sudan in 24 years.

In South Sudan:

Salva Kiir Mayardit was elected President of the Government of Southern Sudan.

SPLM dominated the regional assembly.

Significance: Seen as a dress rehearsal for the 2011 referendum.

2011: South Sudan Independence Referendum

Date: 9–15 January 2011

Result: Over 98% voted in favour of independence.

Outcome: On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became an independent state.

Historical Significance: Marked the most democratic and peaceful vote in the country's history.

2011: Post-Independence Governance



Salva Kiir: Sworn in as President of the Republic of South Sudan, transitioning from his previous role.

2013: Civil War Erupts

Event: Political tensions between President Salva Kiir and Vice President Riek Machar led to conflict.

Impact: Elections planned for 2015 were postponed indefinitely due to instability.

2015–2020: Delays and Fragile Peace

Event: Multiple peace deals signed (notably in 2015 and 2018), aiming to restore governance and elections.

Provisional Governments: Formed without elections, with Kiir and Machar alternating in transitional roles.

2023: Preparations for Elections Begin

Event: The Reconstituted Transitional Government of National Unity (R-TGoNU) committed to holding general elections by December 2024.

Progress: Institutions such as the National Elections Commission and Political Parties Council were reformed.

2024 (Planned): South Sudan General Elections

Expected Date: December 2024 (subject to change)

Significance: Would mark the country’s first general elections since independence.

Challenges: Security, voter registration, legal frameworks, and political will remain critical hurdles.

2025 (Projected): Democratic Consolidation or Continuation of Transition

Outlook: If elections occur in 2024, 2025 may see the formation of South Sudan’s first elected post-independence government.

Risks: Any delays, boycotts, or post-election violence could derail democratic progress.



South Sudan’s electoral journey is deeply entwined with its long history of conflict, resistance, and fragile peacebuilding. While the 2011 referendum stands as a high point of democratic participation, the country has yet to hold a full national election since becoming independent. The 2024–2025 period represents a crucial test of South Sudan’s commitment to democratic governance and institutional maturity.

Democratic Turning Points: Major Electoral Events Reshaping South Sudan’s Path to Democracy (1900–2025)

South Sudan, the world's youngest nation, emerged as a sovereign state in 2011 after decades of conflict and marginalisation under successive Sudanese regimes. While its political evolution has occurred mostly in the 21st century, understanding the democratic trajectory of South Sudan requires tracing key revolutions, coups, peace accords, and electoral reforms that defined its turbulent journey from subjugation to self-determination.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Period (1899–1956): The Colonial Foundations

Though not directly part of the democratic narrative, the colonial period set the context for South Sudan’s later demands for autonomy. Under British-Egyptian rule, the South was administratively and economically neglected. British policies enforced the separation of North and South Sudan, preventing political development in the South. No elections or democratic institutions were introduced in the region.

1956–1972: Independence of Sudan and First Civil War

Following Sudan’s independence in 1956, power was centralised in Khartoum. The imposition of Arabisation and Islamisation policies led to the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972), with the South demanding federal autonomy. During this period, democracy was elusive. Although Sudan held parliamentary elections (e.g., in 1958 and 1965), the South remained underrepresented, marginalised, and militarised.

1972: The Addis Ababa Agreement

The signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement marked a temporary democratic breakthrough. The deal ended the civil war and granted the South a measure of autonomy through the establishment of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. While this brought local governance and some electoral processes to the South, Khartoum retained ultimate authority, and tensions would soon resurface.

1983–2005: Second Sudanese Civil War and the Rise of the SPLM/A

In 1983, President Jaafar Nimeiry revoked southern autonomy and imposed Sharia law, triggering the Second Sudanese Civil War. The Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) was born, led by Dr. John Garang. Though born as an armed resistance group, SPLM/A also began advocating for political transformation, federalism, and later, self-determination.

During this time, Sudan saw a series of coups and electoral interruptions—none of which allowed democratic expression in the South.

2005: Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) between the SPLM and the Sudanese government was a seismic turning point. Key democratic provisions included:

A guaranteed six-year autonomy for South Sudan.

The creation of the Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS).

Nationwide elections in 2010.

A referendum on southern independence in 2011.

This period witnessed the establishment of basic democratic institutions, political parties, and civic processes in South Sudan.

2010: Sudan General Elections

The 2010 elections were the first multi-party polls in decades. Though marred by irregularities, they enabled the SPLM to consolidate power in the South, setting the stage for the independence referendum. Salva Kiir was elected President of the Government of Southern Sudan.

2011: South Sudan’s Independence Referendum

A historic referendum in January 2011, with a voter turnout of 98.83% and 98.83% voting for independence, sealed the South's destiny. It was hailed globally as a democratic triumph, giving voice to millions of South Sudanese after decades of war.

On 9 July 2011, South Sudan officially became an independent nation—the most significant democratic milestone in its history.

2013–2018: Civil War and Collapse of Democratic Structures

Tragically, post-independence hopes were dashed when civil war broke out in December 2013 between factions loyal to President Salva Kiir and former Vice President Riek Machar. Electoral processes were suspended, and planned elections in 2015 were cancelled.

The conflict devastated institutions and civil society. From 2015–2018, power-sharing deals failed repeatedly, and governance devolved into a patchwork of military rule and ceasefire breaches.

2018: Revitalised Peace Agreement (R-ARCSS)

The Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS) was signed in 2018. It mandated:

A transitional unity government.

Reunification of armed forces.

National elections at the end of the transition period (initially planned for 2022, later delayed).

The agreement also restored faith in electoral institutions such as the National Elections Commission and sought to lay the foundations for constitutional democracy.

2022–2025: Delayed Elections and Democratic Uncertainty

South Sudan’s first post-independence elections were delayed several times due to logistical, political, and security challenges. As of 2025, elections are scheduled for December 2024, though doubts remain.

Key electoral reforms ahead of the polls include:

Redrafting the permanent constitution.

Reconstituting the National Elections Commission.

Voter registration drives and civic education campaigns.

If held successfully, the 2024 elections could be a historic test of South Sudan’s commitment to democratic governance.



South Sudan’s democratic journey is one of endurance, struggle, and fragile hope. From decades of colonial neglect, civil war, and missed electoral opportunities to peace deals and referendums, every democratic milestone has been hard-won. As the country prepares for its most important election yet, the world watches to see whether South Sudan can finally anchor itself in a tradition of peaceful, inclusive, and accountable democracy.

CSV-style Table: General Elections in South Sudan (1900–2025)

South Sudan (Year)

System

Ruling Party

Turnout (%)

Major Issue

1900–2005

N/A (Under Anglo-Egyptian rule and Sudanese control)

N/A

N/A

Colonial rule; political marginalisation

2011 (Referendum)

Referendum (Direct Vote)

SPLM (Post-independence)

97.5

Secession from Sudan

2015 (Cancelled)

Presidential & Parliamentary (Postponed)

SPLM (Fragmented)

N/A

Civil war; lack of security

2018 (Peace Accord)

Transitional (Peace Deal, no election)

SPLM / Opposition coalition

N/A

Formation of transitional government

2024 (Planned)

Mixed (Presidential & Legislative)

TBD (Expected SPLM dominance)

TBD

Democratic legitimacy; implementation of peace agreement

 South Sudan’s Electoral Journey: A State Emerging from Conflict

South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, offers a stark example of how elections are often shaped not by tradition but by survival, peace, and state-building. Unlike long-established democracies with routine electoral cycles, South Sudan's electoral path has been turbulent, driven largely by conflict, independence, and fractured governance.

Colonial Shadows and Post-Colonial Marginalisation (1900–2005)

Before independence, what is now South Sudan was part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and later Sudan. No distinct elections were held in the southern region, which was politically sidelined. The South remained largely excluded from Khartoum's central politics, leading to decades of marginalisation and two bloody civil wars.

2011 Referendum: A Defining Vote for Sovereignty

The first and most significant national vote occurred in January 2011: the independence referendum. Over 97% of registered voters participated, with 98.8% voting in favour of secession from Sudan. The process was hailed internationally for its relatively peaceful conduct and clarity of purpose—ending decades of war through democratic choice.

Aborted Elections and Wartime Governance (2015–2018)

Elections scheduled for 2015 were postponed indefinitely due to renewed civil war. The ruling Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), fractured by internal conflict between President Salva Kiir and his former Vice President Riek Machar, could not maintain electoral processes. Instead, governance was sustained by decrees and transitional arrangements.

In 2018, the Revitalised Peace Agreement marked a turning point. While not an election per se, it laid the groundwork for a transitional government and envisioned national elections to stabilise the political landscape.

2024: A Test of Democratic Will

South Sudan's first true general elections are now tentatively planned for 2024, following repeated delays. These elections, if held, will be crucial in gauging the country’s commitment to peace, democratic inclusion, and institutional resilience. However, concerns abound—from voter registration and ID documentation to press freedom and opposition access.

With SPLM expected to maintain significant influence, the challenge lies not just in conducting a vote, but in ensuring it is free, fair, and reflective of popular will. Given the nation’s troubled history, the 2024 polls could either mark the dawn of democratic consolidation or reignite unresolved tensions.



South Sudan’s electoral evolution reflects its broader struggle for identity, peace, and governance. From a historic referendum to a long-delayed democratic transition, the country's future now hinges on translating fragile peace into credible political participation. Observers will watch 2024 closely—less as a routine election and more as a litmus test of statehood itself.

Global Electoral Trends by Decade (1900–2025): A Summary with Reference to South Sudan

The evolution of electoral systems worldwide since 1900 reflects complex waves of democratization, innovation, and authoritarian regression. South Sudan’s political journey, though unique in its context, mirrors many global trends—particularly in relation to the struggles for inclusion, representation, and sovereignty. This article summarises the dominant global electoral developments by decade, weaving in South Sudan’s experience where relevant.

1900s to 1910s: Foundations and Limited Franchise

Global Trends: Early 20th century saw the consolidation of electoral systems in established democracies like the UK, France, and the US, primarily restricted to elite male voters. Many colonies and territories lacked formal elections.

South Sudan: Under Anglo-Egyptian rule, no electoral processes existed for South Sudanese, reflecting colonial exclusion.

1920s to 1930s: Expansion of Suffrage and Electoral Reforms

Global Trends: Post-World War I, many countries extended voting rights, including some women’s suffrage movements. Electoral reforms such as proportional representation began to take root in Europe.

South Sudan: Remained under colonial administration with negligible political participation; regional marginalisation deepened.

1940s to 1950s: Decolonisation and First Elections

Global Trends: Post-World War II, waves of decolonisation led to the first elections in newly independent states across Asia and Africa. Universal suffrage became a key aspiration.

South Sudan: Part of Sudanese independence in 1956; however, southern Sudanese were largely excluded from national politics, igniting conflict.

1960s: Democratization and Authoritarianism

Global Trends: Many African and Asian nations held first elections post-independence, but instability often led to coups and authoritarian rule. Electoral institutions were fragile.

South Sudan: Caught in the First Sudanese Civil War, electoral democracy was absent; governance was characterised by conflict and rebellion.

1970s: Autonomy and Limited Political Participation

Global Trends: Some countries experimented with regional autonomy and limited political liberalisation. Electoral innovations included multiparty systems emerging in Latin America.

South Sudan: The 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement granted autonomy but no elections; political processes remained informal and controlled.

1980s: Authoritarian Rollbacks and Conflict

Global Trends: Many countries reverted to authoritarianism, with suspended elections or controlled plebiscites. Cold War geopolitics influenced electoral manipulation.

South Sudan: The Second Sudanese Civil War broke out in 1983; formal elections were impossible amid armed conflict.

1990s: Wave of Democratization and Electoral Innovations

Global Trends: The “Third Wave” of democracy saw multiparty elections, introduction of electronic voting trials, and international election monitoring.

South Sudan: Remained conflict-ridden but SPLM negotiations set the stage for future political settlements.

2000s: Peace Agreements and Electoral Institution Building

Global Trends: Post-conflict states increasingly used elections as peacebuilding tools. Technology improved voter registration and transparency. Electoral commissions gained independence.

South Sudan: The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement introduced elections for the Government of Southern Sudan in 2010.

2010s: Democratization Challenges and Electoral Setbacks

Global Trends: Despite widespread elections, challenges such as electoral violence, misinformation, and authoritarian tactics increased globally. Social media reshaped electoral campaigns.

South Sudan: Achieved independence in 2011, but civil war erupted in 2013, leading to postponement of elections and fragile transitional governance.

2020s: Electoral Uncertainty and Digitalisation

Global Trends: The decade faces challenges from electoral delays due to conflicts and pandemics, rising authoritarianism, and cyber vulnerabilities. At the same time, digital tools for voter engagement and monitoring advance.

South Sudan: Preparations for first post-independence elections planned for 2024/2025 amid ongoing political fragility and efforts toward democratic consolidation.



From limited suffrage and colonial exclusion to digital-era electoral innovations, global electoral trends have been shaped by a dialectic between democratic progress and authoritarian rollback. South Sudan’s path, marked by conflict and resilience, reflects the broader challenges faced by many emerging democracies in achieving inclusive and stable electoral systems.

How Electoral Turning Points Shaped Democracy in South Sudan (1900–2025)

Write like a political analyst explaining why the birth of South Sudan in 2011 was more than just a break from Sudan — it was the symbolic culmination of over a century of marginalisation, resistance, and aspirations for self-rule. While democracy in its formal sense only began to take shape in the 21st century, the seeds were sown during the colonial era and nourished by successive conflicts and peace accords.

Colonial Legacy: The Quiet Century (1900–1956)

Summarise the 1900–1956 political atmosphere in a journalistic tone.

Between 1900 and 1956, South Sudan was locked within Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, governed from Khartoum with virtually no regard for the southern population. The British employed a “Southern Policy” that discouraged political development in the South, leading to a vacuum of democratic institutions and civic participation. This absence of political inclusion laid the groundwork for resistance.

First Democratic Fracture: Sudan’s Independence and the South’s Rejection (1956–1972)

Write like a historian dissecting why Sudan’s early democracy never reached the South.

Sudan gained independence from colonial rule in 1956 and held parliamentary elections, but South Sudanese citizens quickly realised these were elections in name only for them. Power was monopolised by northern elites; southern leaders were either sidelined or militarised. The eruption of the First Sudanese Civil War in 1955 — just one year before independence — reflected this political exclusion. Democracy without representation proved to be no democracy at all.

1972 Addis Ababa Agreement: Autonomy as a Substitute for Democracy

Write like a constitutional analyst reviewing whether regional autonomy can replace national electoral inclusion.

The 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement brought relative calm and the formation of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. For the first time, the South could manage its own local governance. Yet the region still lacked real electoral accountability. Without a robust electoral framework or popular participation, autonomy remained a top-down solution. It was a ceasefire, not a democratic breakthrough.

From Rebellion to Representation: The SPLM Era (1983–2005)

Write like a political analyst explaining why the SPLM was not a traditional democratic party.

When the Sudanese government revoked the South’s autonomy in 1983 and imposed Sharia law, civil war returned — but this time with a powerful new actor: the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). Led by John Garang, it was a liberation movement first, a political organisation second. Democratic norms took a back seat to military discipline and ideological unity. Still, SPLM sowed the seeds of political consciousness and statehood among ordinary Southerners.

2005–2011: From Peace Agreement to Popular Vote

Write like a policy expert tracing how peace accords transitioned into democratic mechanics.

The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was a technical masterpiece. It laid out a six-year roadmap, culminating in a referendum on independence. Crucially, it also triggered the first steps towards elections — establishing the Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS) and introducing a quasi-democratic system.

The 2010 national elections, although fraught with irregularities, allowed the SPLM to entrench itself as the ruling party. It wasn’t a perfect democracy, but it was functional enough to conduct the historic 2011 independence referendum, where nearly 99% voted to break away from Sudan — a moment hailed globally as the South’s first truly democratic expression.

2013–2018: The Democratic Collapse During Civil War

Write like a conflict analyst explaining how political disputes degenerate into civil war.

In 2013, a political dispute between President Salva Kiir and Vice President Riek Machar turned deadly. The resulting civil war suspended all democratic processes. Elections due in 2015 were postponed indefinitely. During these years, democracy existed only on paper. Power was negotiated through peace talks, not through ballots.

The 2015 and 2018 peace agreements included promises of elections and reforms, but mistrust and violence delayed implementation. Governance was militarised. Electoral institutions were frozen. The people, once again, had no say.

2022–2025: The Fragile Return to the Ballot Box

Write like a journalist covering a tense pre-election atmosphere.

As of 2025, South Sudan stands at another democratic crossroads. After multiple delays, general elections are tentatively scheduled for December 2024. Voter registration campaigns are underway, and efforts to reconstitute the National Elections Commission continue — albeit slowly. There’s cautious optimism, but also deep uncertainty.

International observers warn that without security, transparency, and a permanent constitution, elections could exacerbate tensions rather than resolve them. The stakes are high: these elections will determine whether South Sudan embraces democratic legitimacy or reverts to political fragmentation.



Write like a political theorist summarising democracy’s real test.

South Sudan’s path to democracy has not been linear; it has been disrupted by colonialism, war, elite competition, and fragile peace. While the 2011 referendum marked a shining moment, the years that followed showed how quickly democratic aspirations can be derailed. The 2024–2025 elections represent more than just a procedural vote — they are a litmus test of South Sudan’s democratic resilience.

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