A Century of Electoral Transformation: Iraq's Electoral System from 1900 to 2025-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

Iraq’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 reflects a tumultuous trajectory shaped by colonial rule, monarchic control, military dictatorships, and eventual democratisation. The country has experimented with a variety of electoral systems—ranging from elite-controlled appointments to contemporary forms of proportional representation—each reflecting the prevailing political order and balance of power.

Pre-1958 Era: Monarchical Rule and Limited Representation

1900–1920: Ottoman Legacy and British Mandate

Before the establishment of the modern Iraqi state, Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire. Elections were conducted under the Ottoman parliamentary system, which was extremely limited in franchise. The system was largely majoritarian and indirect—local notables selected electors, who in turn chose representatives. Following World War I, Iraq fell under British control and elections were postponed or tightly managed by colonial authorities.

1925–1958: The Hashemite Monarchy and Controlled Parliamentary Elections

Under the 1925 Constitution, Iraq became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature. The lower house (Chamber of Deputies) was elected using a two-stage indirect majoritarian system. Eligible male voters chose "electors," who then selected MPs. Though formally parliamentary, the process was heavily manipulated by the monarchy, tribal elites, and the British to ensure loyalty. Political parties were frequently banned, and results predetermined, especially under King Faisal II.

1958–2003: Republic, Coups, and Ba’athist Authoritarianism

1958–1968: Military Rule with No Genuine Elections

After the 1958 revolution abolished the monarchy, Iraq entered a period of military rule under General Abd al-Karim Qasim and subsequent juntas. No substantive electoral mechanisms were introduced during this period. Leadership was secured through internal military arrangements rather than public ballots.

1968–2003: Ba’athist One-Party Rule

Under Saddam Hussein’s Ba’athist regime, elections existed more in form than in substance. The 1980 and 1984 parliamentary elections used a single-member district system (akin to FPTP), but all candidates had to be approved by the ruling Ba’ath Party. The system was, in effect, a majoritarian façade within a one-party state. The 1995 referendum on Saddam’s presidency—recording a reported 99.96% "Yes" vote—epitomised the hollow nature of voting under dictatorship.

Post-2003: Democratic Transition and Proportional Representation

2005 Constitution and the Rise of Proportional Representation

Following the US-led invasion and the fall of Saddam’s regime, Iraq underwent a major political reconstitution. The 2005 Constitution introduced a unicameral parliament (Council of Representatives) elected through proportional representation (PR). Initially, Iraq employed a closed-list PR system at the national level, designed to ensure representation of Iraq’s diverse ethnic and sectarian communities (Shi'a, Sunni, Kurds, Turkmen, etc.).

2010–2018: Open-List Proportional Representation

In response to growing public demands for transparency and accountability, Iraq shifted to an open-list PR system. Voters could now influence which candidates from a party list were elected, thereby weakening party bosses’ control. Although this enhanced voter agency, it also encouraged fragmentation and patronage.

2021 Reforms: A Move Towards Constituency-Based Voting

Triggered by mass protests in 2019, Iraq passed a new electoral law in 2020. The 2021 parliamentary elections marked a departure from national PR: Iraq was divided into 83 multi-member districts, and the system allowed independent candidacy. It still retained proportional features but introduced single non-transferable vote (SNTV) mechanisms in some areas, making the system semi-majoritarian and more candidate-centred. These reforms were intended to weaken large parties and enhance local representation, though turnout remained low at 41%.

Summary Table: Iraq’s Electoral System (1900–2025)

Iraq's electoral system has evolved from indirect aristocratic selections under imperial rule, to manipulated elections under authoritarian regimes, and eventually towards a hybrid proportional and constituency-based system post-2003. While formal democracy has taken root, especially through the 2005 constitution, Iraq’s electoral system remains in flux—constantly adapting to public pressure, political fragmentation, and the deep-seated need to balance its sectarian, ethnic, and regional complexities.

The political evolution of Iraq from a monarchic state to a multiparty democracy has been turbulent and deeply shaped by foreign intervention, authoritarianism, and popular struggle. Iraq’s transition to a multi-party or democratic electoral system did not occur in a linear fashion but instead developed in distinct and often violent stages. The most pivotal moment in this transition came in 2005, following the 2003 US-led invasion and the fall of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’athist regime.

Early Experiments: 1920s–1958

Iraq’s first brush with parliamentary politics came under British mandate in the early 1920s. The Kingdom of Iraq, established in 1921 under King Faisal I, was a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature. Elections for the Chamber of Deputies were held, beginning in 1925. However, these elections were heavily manipulated by the monarchy and British authorities, with political parties often banned or marginalised. While technically multiparty in form, the system lacked democratic substance.

Authoritarianism and One-Party Rule: 1958–2003

The July 1958 revolution abolished the monarchy and introduced a republican regime led by General Abdul Karim Qasim. This marked the end of even a limited parliamentary system. Over the next four decades, Iraq witnessed a succession of coups and authoritarian rulers. The Ba’ath Party, which seized power in 1968 and was firmly consolidated under Saddam Hussein by 1979, presided over a brutal one-party state.

During Saddam's rule, Iraq held referendums (such as the 1995 presidential referendum), but these were widely dismissed as sham votes with near-100% support reported amid intimidation and repression. Political parties outside the Ba’ath Party were banned, dissent was harshly punished, and there were no genuine multiparty elections.

The Democratic Transition: 2003–2005

The decisive shift toward a multi-party democratic system began after the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. The collapse of Saddam Hussein’s regime allowed for the reorganisation of Iraq’s political system. Under the direction of the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), led by Paul Bremer, Iraq began reconstructing its political institutions.

In January 2005, Iraq held its first multi-party parliamentary elections in over 50 years to form a transitional National Assembly. These elections were significant: they were open to multiple parties, included international observers, and saw participation across ethnic and sectarian lines, although voter turnout varied regionally due to violence and boycotts.

Later that year, in October 2005, a national referendum approved a new constitution, establishing Iraq as a federal parliamentary republic. This codified the right to vote, the legitimacy of political pluralism, and a system of proportional representation for the Council of Representatives (the parliament).

Post-2005 Iraq: Challenges to Democracy

Since 2005, Iraq has held several national elections (2006, 2010, 2014, 2018, and 2021), all under a multiparty system. These elections have seen robust competition among political blocs, including secular, Islamist, Kurdish, and independent parties. However, democracy in Iraq has faced significant challenges: sectarian violence, foreign interference, widespread corruption, and electoral distrust.

Mass protests in 2019–2020, known as the Tishreen Movement, demonstrated deep public disillusionment with the political system. In response, electoral laws were reformed to move from a closed-list proportional representation to an open-list system with smaller constituencies, first applied in the October 2021 elections.

Iraq’s transition to a multiparty democratic system formally occurred in 2005, with the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of competitive, internationally recognised elections. While the road to democracy has been marred by conflict and instability, Iraq today maintains a functioning – albeit fragile – multi-party electoral system. Whether this system matures into a stable democratic model remains a question for Iraq’s political future and its people’s continued demand for reform and accountability.

Iraq’s National Election Results (1900–2025): A Historical Overview

Introduction

Iraq’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 reflects a turbulent path from monarchy to republic, dictatorship to democracy, with key turning points in 1958, 2003, and 2005 shaping the nature of its elections. Below is a historical summary of Iraq’s general election results, major parties, parliamentary seat distribution, and voter turnout across the decades.

Early 20th Century (1900–1958): Limited Representation under Monarchy

1900–1920s: No nationwide parliamentary elections during Ottoman rule. Political authority was centralised in Istanbul.

1925: Following the creation of the Kingdom of Iraq under British mandate, a constitutional monarchy was established. The first parliamentary elections were held in 1925, but were largely controlled by the monarchy and British authorities.

Key Outcome:

Dominated by royalist and tribal elites.

No clear party system; politics were personality and patronage-based.

Voter participation was limited, especially among women and minorities.

1930s–1950s: A series of elections occurred, but the monarchy manipulated outcomes. Political parties such as the National Democratic Party (NDP) and Iraqi Communist Party (ICP) emerged but were restricted or banned.

Republican Period and Authoritarian Rule (1958–2003)

1958 Coup: Overthrew monarchy; established republic under Abdul Karim Qasim.

1958–1963: No elections; Iraq ruled by military decrees.

1968–2003: Dominated by the Ba'ath Party, especially under Saddam Hussein (1979–2003). Elections, when held, were non-competitive.

Example: Iraq General Election 1977

Type: National Assembly (consultative, not legislative)

Political Context: One-party rule under Saddam Hussein.

Party: Ba'ath Party (Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region)

Seats: 250 total

Ba'ath Party: 250 (only candidates allowed)

Voter Turnout: Reported as 80% (widely disputed internationally)

Note: The National Assembly had no real legislative power. It existed primarily to provide a façade of democracy.

Post-2003 Democratic Transition (2005–2025)

Following the 2003 US-led invasion and fall of Saddam Hussein, Iraq transitioned to a multi-party democracy with a proportional representation electoral system.

2005 Parliamentary Elections (Transitional National Assembly)

Date: 30 January 2005

Voter Turnout: 58%

Major Parties & Seats (Total: 275):

United Iraqi Alliance (Shi’a Islamist bloc): 140

Kurdistani Alliance: 75

Iraqi List (Ayad Allawi): 40

Others: 20

2010 General Election

Date: 7 March 2010

Voter Turnout: 62%

Seats (325 Total):

Iraqiya List (Ayad Allawi, secular nationalist): 91

State of Law Coalition (Nouri al-Maliki, Shi’a Islamist): 89

Iraqi National Alliance (Shi’a parties incl. Sadrists): 70

Kurdistani Alliance: 43

Others (minorities & independents): 32

2014 General Election

Date: 30 April 2014

Voter Turnout: 60%

Seats (328 Total):

State of Law Coalition (Maliki): 92

Sadrist Movement (al-Ahrar Bloc): 34

Mutahidun (Sunni bloc): 23

Citizen Coalition (ISCI): 29

Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP): 25

Others: 125

2018 General Election

Date: 12 May 2018

Voter Turnout: 44.5% (lowest since 2005)

Seats (329 Total):

Sairoon (Sadrists & Communists): 54

Fatah Alliance (Popular Mobilisation Forces): 48

Victory Alliance (PM Abadi): 42

State of Law (Maliki): 25

Kurdistani parties: ~45 combined

Others: ~115

2021 Early Parliamentary Election

Date: 10 October 2021

Voter Turnout: 41%

Seats (329 Total):

Sairoon Movement (Sadrists): 73

Progress Party (Sunni leader Halbousi): 37

State of Law (Maliki): 33

Fatah Alliance: 17

KDP: 31

PUK: 17

Others: 121

2025 Forecast (based on available trends)

Expected Date: Likely in late 2025 unless delayed.

 Electoral law reform, Iran-US influence, ecoMain Issues:nomic crisis, youth disenfranchisement.

Major Parties Expected:

Sadrists (if they re-enter)

Coordination Framework (Shi’a blocs)

Kurdish blocs (KDP/PUK)

Sunni coalitions (Progress/Taqaddum)

Voter turnout is expected to be below 50%, driven by political apathy and distrust.

From monarchy to dictatorship to a fragile democracy, Iraq’s electoral journey has been marked by upheaval, reform, and persistent challenges. While the post-2005 period introduced meaningful competition and proportional representation, voter turnout and public trust remain low. Iraq’s political future, especially after the 2025 election, hinges on governance reforms and restoring credibility in democratic institutions.

The Evolution of Iraq’s Electoral Politics: Key Parties, Leaders, and Outcomes (1900–2025)

From a monarchy in the early 20th century to a Ba'athist dictatorship and eventually a federal parliamentary republic, Iraq’s political landscape has been anything but static. The country’s electoral journey, particularly from 1900 to 2025, offers a compelling case study of conflict, authoritarianism, foreign intervention, and democratic aspirations. This article outlines the key political parties, figures, and outcomes that have shaped Iraq’s elections during this turbulent period.

Pre-1958 Monarchical Period: Elite Dominance under the Crown

During the British Mandate and early Hashemite monarchy, Iraq’s political structure operated under a constitutional monarchy, albeit with limited suffrage and real power concentrated in the royal family and appointed elites.

Major Parties:

Constitutional Union Party

National Democratic Party (NDP)

Iraqi Independence Party

Key Leaders:

Nuri al-Said: Pro-British statesman and several-time Prime Minister.

King Faisal II: The last monarch of Iraq.

Electoral Outcomes:
Elections were generally non-democratic, manipulated by the monarchy to maintain power. Voter participation was limited to male property owners, and political pluralism was stifled.

The Republican and Ba'athist Era (1958–2003): One-Party Rule and Authoritarianism

Following the 1958 coup led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim, Iraq transitioned to a republic. However, the democratic experiment was short-lived. By 1968, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party had consolidated power.

Major Parties:

Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (dominant from 1968–2003)

Iraqi Communist Party (briefly influential before being banned)

Key Leaders:

Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr (President: 1968–1979)

Saddam Hussein (President: 1979–2003)

Electoral Outcomes:
Elections during this period were mere formalities, held without genuine opposition. Saddam often claimed electoral victories with 99%+ of the vote, with referenda used to legitimise his absolute rule. Political opposition was violently suppressed.

Post-2003 Democratic Transition: Pluralism Amidst Instability

The 2003 US-led invasion toppled Saddam Hussein, initiating a complex transition towards a multi-party democracy under a federal constitution ratified in 2005.

2005 Elections – A New Dawn

Major Parties:

United Iraqi Alliance (UIA) – Shiite coalition

Kurdistani Alliance – Representing Kurdish interests

Iraqi List – Secular party led by Ayad Allawi

Key Leaders:

Ibrahim al-Jaafari, Jalal Talabani, Ayad Allawi

Outcome:
The UIA won the most seats in the 2005 elections. However, sectarian violence followed, undermining democratic consolidation.

2010 Elections

Major Parties:

Iraqiyya List (led by Allawi)

State of Law Coalition (led by Nouri al-Maliki)

Key Leaders:

Nouri al-Maliki

Ayad Allawi

Outcome:
Iraqiyya narrowly won the most seats, but Maliki retained the premiership after a lengthy post-election negotiation, highlighting Iraq’s fragile coalition politics.

2014 Elections

Major Parties:

State of Law Coalition

Sadrist Movement

Kurdistani Democratic Party (KDP)

Key Leaders:

Nouri al-Maliki

Muqtada al-Sadr

Outcome:
Maliki's bloc won the most seats but mounting criticism led to his resignation. Haider al-Abadi became Prime Minister.

2018 Elections

Major Parties:

Sairoon Alliance (led by Sadrists and Communists)

Fatah Alliance (linked to PMF militias)

Nasr Coalition (Haider al-Abadi's bloc)

Key Leaders:

Muqtada al-Sadr

Hadi al-Amiri

Haider al-Abadi

Outcome:
The Sairoon Alliance emerged first in seat count. The election saw historically low turnout and allegations of fraud.

2021 Elections (Snap Polls After 2019 Protests)

Major Parties:

Sairoon Movement

Fatah Alliance (significantly weakened)

Taqaddum Party (Sunni party led by al-Halbousi)

Key Leaders:

Muqtada al-Sadr

Mohammed al-Halbousi

Outcome:
Sadrists won the most seats but later withdrew from Parliament. Political deadlock followed until Mohammed Shia’ Al Sudani was appointed PM in 2022.

2025 Outlook: Democratic Stagnation or Renewal?

As of early 2025, Iraq remains a parliamentary republic in principle, but plagued by political paralysis, weak institutions, and foreign influence.

Dominant Political Forces:

Shiite Coordination Framework (includes pro-Iran groups)

Taqaddum and Azm (Sunni coalitions)

Kurdish parties: KDP and PUK continue to dominate in the north.

Potential Leaders:

Muqtada al-Sadr (despite withdrawal, still influential)

Mohammed Shia’ Al Sudani (current PM)

Barham Salih and Masoud Barzani (Kurdish influence persists)

A Fragmented Democracy

Iraq’s electoral history has been one of extreme transitions — from colonial constructs to authoritarian rule, and then toward a pluralistic, albeit fragile, democracy. While democratic institutions exist on paper, entrenched sectarianism, militia influence, and external interference have hindered the formation of a robust democratic culture. The 2025 election and beyond will test whether Iraq can overcome these challenges or remain mired in perpetual transition.

Electoral Violence and Irregularities in Iraq (1900–2025): A Historical Analysis

Iraq’s electoral history has been marked by significant turbulence, irregularities, violence, and political manipulation, particularly in the 20th and early 21st centuries. From monarchic rule to authoritarian regimes and later democratic experiments post-2003, elections in Iraq often mirrored the state of national stability — or lack thereof. This article reviews the documented instances of electoral violence, reported irregularities, and cases of annulled, delayed, or boycotted elections from 1900 to 2025.

Electoral Violence and Irregularities (Chronological Summary)

Monarchical & Early Republican Period (1900–1968)

Pre-1958 (Monarchy Era):
Elections under the Hashemite monarchy (1921–1958) were largely symbolic. Although parliaments existed, elections were tightly controlled by the monarchy and British authorities. Voter intimidation and the exclusion of dissenting voices were common.

1958–1968 (Republican Era):
No competitive elections took place during this period. Political parties were banned, and any attempt at electoral participation was tightly managed or violently suppressed by military rulers.

Ba'athist Authoritarian Rule (1968–2003)

1980, 1984, 1989, 1996 Elections (Under Saddam Hussein):
These elections were marked by extreme irregularities. Saddam Hussein’s regime routinely achieved implausible voter turnouts and approval ratings (e.g., 99.96% in 2002). There was no political competition; opposition was crushed, and elections were mere formalities. Reports by human rights organisations highlighted voter coercion, with citizens often compelled to vote under surveillance.

Election-Related Violence:
Critics of the regime, including Kurdish and Shia groups, faced violent crackdowns. Mass arrests, executions, and the suppression of dissent were widespread, particularly in Kurdish regions and after the 1991 uprising.

Post-2003 Democratic Transition: Widespread Violence and Irregularities

2005 – First Democratic Elections

Violence:
The January 2005 parliamentary elections were held amid extreme sectarian violence. More than 40 people were killed in election-day bombings and shootings. Al-Qaeda in Iraq threatened voters, especially in Sunni regions.

Boycott:
Sunni Arab parties largely boycotted the vote, leading to an underrepresentation in the new assembly and contributing to deepening sectarian divides.

2010 Parliamentary Election

Irregularities:
Accusations of fraud, double voting, and ballot manipulation were widespread. The electoral commission invalidated ballots from 63 polling centres.

UN and US Observers: Confirmed irregularities but maintained the election’s legitimacy.

Violence: Over 30 people were killed in attacks targeting polling stations and candidates.

2014 Parliamentary Election

Violence:
Held amid the rise of ISIS. Baghdad and other cities saw frequent suicide bombings in the run-up to the vote.

Election-day saw over 20 attacks.

Voter turnout was suppressed in ISIS-controlled areas such as Mosul and Anbar.

Delays and Displacement:
Many internally displaced persons (IDPs) were unable to vote due to insecurity and logistical failures.

2018 Parliamentary Election

Irregularities and Protests:
Widespread allegations of electronic vote manipulation led to a partial manual recount ordered by parliament.

The electoral commission’s credibility was called into question.

Protests broke out in Kirkuk and other disputed areas.

The Supreme Court later upheld most results.

Boycott & Apathy:
Turnout was officially recorded at 44.5% — one of the lowest since 2005, with accusations that true turnout was even lower.

2021 Early Elections

Election Violence:
Several candidates were assassinated or survived attempted killings in the months before the polls.

Political activists protesting corruption were also targeted.

Election-day incidents were relatively limited due to heavy security.

Boycott:
The influential Sadrist movement initially threatened a boycott but later reversed the decision.

Overall turnout fell to just 41%.

Delayed, Annulled, or Boycotted Elections (1900–2025)

Iraq’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 has been fraught with systemic irregularities, voter suppression, targeted violence, and periods of complete political exclusion. Although post-2003 Iraq established a legal framework for democratic elections, chronic insecurity, sectarianism, and lack of institutional trust have often undermined the integrity of the vote. The future of Iraqi democracy depends on addressing these foundational issues — ensuring both credible elections and genuine political inclusion.

Iraq’s Electoral Democracy from 1900 to 2025: A History of Authoritarianism, Reform, and Fragile Progress

Iraq’s trajectory on the democracy index from 1900 to 2025 reflects a volatile and often tragic journey. Marked by monarchy, coups, dictatorship, foreign intervention, and faltering attempts at democratic reform, Iraq has rarely enjoyed stable electoral democracy. The nation’s political evolution has been shaped by colonial legacies, oil politics, ethno-sectarian fragmentation, and external interference, all of which have significantly impacted its democratic credentials.

Early 20th Century: Monarchy and Limited Representation (1921–1958)

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was placed under British mandate in 1920, and the Hashemite monarchy was established in 1921. Though nominal parliamentary institutions were formed (e.g., the Chamber of Deputies), political life was largely controlled by the British and the monarchy.

Democracy Index Rating: Very low – elections were highly restricted and non-competitive.

Reforms: Superficial reforms introduced under British supervision; no genuine pluralism.

Elections existed in name, but power remained centralised. Real political opposition was minimal and often suppressed.

Republican Era and Military Dominance (1958–1979)

The 1958 revolution overthrew the monarchy and established a republic. However, this was followed by a series of coups, notably the rise of the Ba'ath Party in 1968. Under Saddam Hussein (formally president from 1979), Iraq became an authoritarian one-party state.

Democracy Index Rating: Bottom tier – no meaningful elections, no opposition, full autocracy.

Backsliding: Severe – transition to a totalitarian regime.

Reforms: None – democratic processes dismantled.

State institutions existed largely to reinforce the regime. Elections (such as the 1995 referendum) were sham exercises with 99%+ approval votes for Saddam.

Post-2003 Invasion: Democratic Rebirth or Fragile Facade?

The 2003 US-led invasion toppled Saddam and initiated a process of democratisation. A new constitution was adopted in 2005, and regular parliamentary elections were held.

2005–2010:

Democracy Index Rating: Modest – electoral competition introduced, but marred by violence and sectarianism.

Reforms: Significant – proportional representation, independent election commission, legal political pluralism.

Despite positive steps, elections were shaped by ethnic quotas, militia influence, and weak institutions. Turnout was relatively high, but trust in the system was low.

2011–2020:

Backsliding Concerns:

Allegations of electoral fraud (e.g., 2018 election).

Mass protests in 2019 (Tishreen Movement) over corruption and lack of reforms.

This period revealed deep structural issues: corruption, foreign influence (notably from Iran), and the dominance of powerful political blocs stifled reform efforts.

2021–2025: Struggles for Legitimacy and Reform

The early 2020s saw further attempts to restore electoral credibility. Snap elections were held in 2021 following public pressure. Though turnout was historically low (~41%), international observers praised technical improvements.

Democracy Index Rating: Fluctuating – procedural democracy with deep deficits.

Reforms:

New electoral law in 2020 changing district boundaries.

Moves to reduce party dominance, empower independents.

Still, the political class remained largely unchanged, and efforts to form a stable government were plagued by deadlock and patronage politics. Civil society gained visibility, but with limited impact on systemic change.

A Case of Stalled Democratisation

Between 1900 and 2025, Iraq’s democracy index reflects a state transitioning from colonial imposition and authoritarian rule to a fragile and often dysfunctional electoral democracy. While post-2003 reforms introduced multi-party elections and constitutional mechanisms, chronic issues – corruption, violence, foreign influence, and institutional weakness – have stunted genuine democratic development.

Major Electoral Reforms in Iraq (1900–2025): A Historical and Analytical Overview

Iraq’s electoral landscape has evolved through monarchy, dictatorship, occupation, and fledgling democracy. From the early 20th-century imperial rule to the post-2003 reconstruction of democratic institutions, Iraq’s electoral reforms reflect its complex history, sectarian dynamics, and the broader struggle between authoritarianism and democracy. This article outlines the major electoral reforms introduced in Iraq between 1900 and 2025, with a particular focus on turning points that redefined political participation, representation, and institutional frameworks.

Pre-1958 Monarchical Period: Limited Representation and Colonial Influence

During the British mandate (1920–1932) and the Kingdom of Iraq (1932–1958), electoral processes existed largely in name. The electoral system, though technically based on indirect parliamentary elections, was heavily controlled by the monarchy and British officials. Elections to the Chamber of Deputies took place but were dominated by elites and tribal leaders loyal to the monarchy.

Electoral Reform Highlights:

Introduction of a constitution in 1925 establishing a bicameral legislature.

Suffrage restricted to men meeting property and literacy qualifications.

No independent electoral commission; elections were often rigged or manipulated by the ruling class.

Ba’athist Era and Saddam Hussein’s Rule (1968–2003): The Illusion of Elections

Under Saddam Hussein and the Ba’ath Party, Iraq had a façade of electoral participation, but in reality, the system was autocratic.

Key Features:

The National Assembly was introduced in 1980, but it had no real power.

Elections were held periodically with a single list of Ba’ath Party-approved candidates.

Saddam’s 2002 “referendum” granted him over 99% approval in a clearly staged event.

Reform in Form Only:
There were minor administrative changes, such as introducing national ID systems for voting, but these did not constitute genuine electoral reform.

Post-2003 US-Led Invasion and Democratic Reconstruction (2003–2010)

The collapse of Saddam’s regime in 2003 ushered in a new era. With the US and international actors involved, Iraq undertook major electoral reforms aimed at building a representative democracy from scratch.

Key Electoral Reforms:

Transitional Administrative Law (TAL), 2004: Served as Iraq’s interim constitution and outlined democratic governance and rights.

Independent High Electoral Commission (IHEC): Established in 2004 to oversee elections independently.

2005 Constitution: Ratified by referendum, it solidified democratic norms and guaranteed rights to vote and organise.

First Free Elections (2005): Iraq held its first multi-party elections for a Transitional National Assembly.

Proportional Representation (PR): Iraq adopted an open-list PR system to promote inclusivity, given the country’s ethnic and sectarian divisions.

Electoral Revisions and Challenges (2010–2018)

As Iraq’s democracy matured, electoral reforms focused on improving transparency, increasing voter trust, and accommodating political diversity.

Reforms Introduced:

Open-List Voting (2010): Voters could now choose individual candidates rather than just party lists.

Use of Technology: Introduction of biometric voter registration and electronic vote counting (though not without controversy).

Minority Quotas: Seats were reserved for minorities such as Christians, Yazidis, and Mandaeans to ensure representation.

Challenges:

Accusations of fraud, boycotts by political factions, and low voter turnout plagued legitimacy.

Calls grew for reforms to decentralise power and reduce the dominance of sectarian party politics.

Post-2019 Reform Movement and the 2021 Election Law

The 2019 Tishreen protests, led by youth demanding an end to corruption and sectarianism, prompted a fresh wave of reforms.

Major Changes in 2020–2021:

New Electoral Law (2020): Shifted from nationwide PR to single non-transferable vote (SNTV) in smaller multi-member districts—designed to weaken party control and empower independent candidates.

Reduction in Constituency Size: Iraq was divided into 83 electoral districts to increase accountability.

Quota for Women: At least 25% of seats in Parliament were reserved for women.

New Voter ID Requirements and Biometric Cards: Strengthened verification to reduce fraud.

2021 Parliamentary Elections: The first to be held under the new law, they saw improved representation of independents, although turnout remained under 45%.

Looking Ahead: Reforms by 2025

By 2025, Iraq continues to grapple with balancing reform and stability. The Independent High Electoral Commission has been working to implement international recommendations to:

Improve voter education and outreach, especially to rural and displaced populations.

Ensure full digitisation of voter rolls and reduce duplicate or ghost registrations.

Debate persists over adopting a hybrid system to combine majoritarian and proportional elements to better reflect voter will.

Iraq’s electoral reforms from 1900 to 2025 illustrate a journey from manipulated monarchy-era elections, through totalitarian plebiscites, to a fragile but evolving democracy. The trajectory has been uneven, often reflecting the broader political crises that have shaped modern Iraq. Yet, the steady institutionalisation of democratic norms and electoral accountability—especially after 2003 and 2019—suggests a nation still aspiring toward genuine, participatory governance.

Global Comparison: Evaluating Iraq’s Electoral System from 1900 to 2025 — A Century of Authoritarianism, Occupation, and Democratic Struggles

At first glance, comparing Iraq’s electoral systems from 1900 to 2025 may seem tautological — Iraq comparing with itself. But beneath the surface lies a tale of contrasting eras: Ottoman subjugation, British colonial designs, Ba'athist authoritarianism, post-2003 democratic aspirations, and endemic instability. This piece evaluates the democratic merit of Iraq’s electoral systems across this 125-year span, identifying which period (if any) can truly be described as "more democratic".

1900–1920: Ottoman Empire and the Absence of Electoral Democracy

At the turn of the 20th century, Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire, governed through appointed provincial administrators with no real electoral mechanisms. While the Ottomans introduced a short-lived parliament in 1876 and reinstated it in 1908, the process was tightly controlled from Istanbul, with negligible local participation. Iraqis had no sovereign electoral voice — this era ranks low in democratic integrity.

1921–1958: The Hashemite Monarchy and Controlled Parliamentary Elections

Following the British occupation and the 1921 installation of King Faisal I, Iraq adopted a constitutional monarchy. A bicameral parliament was established, with a lower house nominally elected and an upper house appointed. However, British influence remained strong, and elections were often manipulated by elite families and royalist interests.

The 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty and the 1932 League of Nations independence recognition failed to democratise political power meaningfully. Voter participation was limited by restrictive franchise, tribal patronage, and electoral rigging. Nonetheless, this period saw the emergence of parties and some parliamentary contestation — a step up from Ottoman rule.

1958–2003: Republicanism and Ba'athist Authoritarianism

After the 1958 revolution overthrew the monarchy, Iraq entered a republican phase — though democratic prospects were quickly dashed. A series of coups led to the 1968 rise of the Ba'ath Party, culminating in Saddam Hussein’s rule from 1979. The regime held referenda and staged elections — most notably the 1995 and 2002 presidential referendums — in which Saddam supposedly received 99.96% and 100% of the vote, respectively.

These were farcical exercises in mass mobilisation, not democracy. Opposition parties were banned, dissent was crushed, and the National Assembly (established in 1980) held no real legislative power. This era represents the nadir of electoral democracy in Iraq.

2003–2025: Post-Saddam Democratic Experiment

The 2003 US-led invasion dismantled Saddam’s regime and ushered in a new era of electoral politics. Iraq adopted a new constitution in 2005, establishing a parliamentary republic with multi-party elections. Universal suffrage, proportional representation, and decentralised voting mechanisms were introduced.

Key elections include:

2005: Iraq’s first democratic elections in decades; Shia, Sunni, and Kurdish blocs participated amid sectarian tensions.

2010 & 2014: Electoral gains by secularists and Shia Islamists; concerns over fraud persisted.

2018 & 2021: Marked by low turnout and public disillusionment due to corruption and instability.

Despite procedural improvements, Iraq’s democracy remains fragile. Sectarian quotas (muhasasa), foreign interference (notably Iranian and American), electoral violence, and weak institutions have hampered genuine democratic consolidation.

So, Which Era Was More Democratic?

Most Democratic Period: Post-2005 Iraq

While far from perfect, Iraq’s post-2005 electoral system marks the country’s most democratic phase. It provides for regular elections, legal political parties, and (to some extent) government accountability. The existence of multiple elections, peaceful transfers of power (e.g., 2014 transition from Maliki to Abadi), and public protest movements demonstrate a dynamic — albeit troubled — democratic experiment.

Least Democratic Period: 1979–2003 (Saddam Era)

This period was marked by totalitarianism cloaked in electoral rituals. Elections under Saddam were neither competitive nor credible, making this the most undemocratic chapter in Iraq’s electoral history.

Iraq’s journey from Ottoman subjugation to post-Saddam elections reflects a tumultuous struggle for representative governance. While modern Iraq has made strides toward democratic norms, its electoral system continues to wrestle with structural flaws and legitimacy crises. Nevertheless, when compared to its past, the post-2005 era — with all its imperfections — stands as Iraq’s most democratic age to date.

First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century: A Global Overview of Systems and ShiftsThe 20th century was a transformative era for democracy. While some countries had experimented with limited franchise in earlier centuries, it was during the 1900s that many states held what could reasonably be classified as their first democratic elections — characterised by competitive multiparty voting, broader suffrage, and regular electoral processes. Below is a selection of notable countries that conducted their first democratic elections in the 20th century, including the year, electoral system, and context.

 India (1951–52)

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)
Following independence from Britain in 1947, India adopted a republican constitution in 1950. Its first general election in 1951–52 was a landmark, featuring universal adult suffrage in a nation of over 170 million eligible voters. The electoral system used was single-member plurality (FPTP), similar to the British model.

Germany (1919 – Weimar Republic)

System: Proportional Representation (PR)
After the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, Germany held its first democratic national election in January 1919 for a constituent assembly. It marked the first time women could vote. The Weimar Constitution later institutionalised proportional representation, fostering a multiparty democracy — albeit one prone to fragmentation.

Japan (1928)

System: SNTV (Single Non-Transferable Vote)
Japan’s first general election under universal male suffrage was in 1928, following electoral reforms. The system used was SNTV in multi-member districts, which allowed multiple parties to win seats but tended to benefit established power blocs. Full female suffrage would not come until after World War II.

South Korea (1948)

System: FPTP
In the wake of Japanese occupation and subsequent U.S. administration, South Korea held its first democratic election in May 1948, electing members to a national assembly. The system adopted was FPTP, although electoral stability was challenged by war and authoritarian rule in subsequent decades.

Ghana (1951)

System: Majoritarian (Limited Franchise)
Ghana (then the Gold Coast) conducted its first semi-democratic elections in 1951, still under British colonial control. Though not fully independent, it was a crucial step toward self-rule. The vote was restricted by qualifications, but it marked the rise of Kwame Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party. Later elections would be more inclusive.

Argentina (1916)

System: PR (Law Sáenz Peña)
Under the Sáenz Peña Law of 1912, Argentina reformed its electoral laws to introduce secret ballot and universal male suffrage. The 1916 election brought Hipólito Yrigoyen to power via proportional representation, marking the country’s first mass-participation democratic election.

Ireland (1922)

System: Single Transferable Vote (STV)
The Irish Free State held its first general election in 1922 following independence. The system used was STV, a form of proportional representation in multi-member constituencies — designed to reflect Ireland’s political diversity and minimise the risks of majority dominance.

Philippines (1935)

System: FPTP
Granted Commonwealth status by the U.S., the Philippines held its first presidential election under a new constitution in 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was elected president using FPTP, and the vote included limited female suffrage, which was expanded fully by 1937.

Turkey (1950)

System: FPTP
Although Turkey had elections before 1950, they were controlled by a single party. The first truly competitive, multi-party democratic election occurred in 1950, resulting in the peaceful transfer of power to the Democrat Party. The electoral system was FPTP in single-member districts.

Nigeria (1959)

System: Mixed-Member/Regional Representation
In preparation for independence in 1960, Nigeria held its first general election in 1959. It used a mixed electoral system designed to balance regional interests among the North, East, and West. The elections were relatively competitive, although ethnic and regional cleavages heavily shaped outcomes.

The 20th century ushered in democratic elections across diverse political and colonial contexts. While First-Past-The-Post remained common in former British colonies, proportional systems were popular in European and Latin American states seeking broader representation. These early democratic experiences laid the groundwork — sometimes fragile — for modern electoral systems and democratisation trajectories.

Timeline of Major Elections in Iraq (1900–2025): Key Political Turning Points

1900–1920: Ottoman Rule and British Mandate Beginnings

Pre-1920: Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire; there were no national elections.

1920: Following the Ottoman defeat in WWI, the San Remo Conference handed Iraq to British control as a League of Nations mandate. The 1920 Iraqi Revolt against British occupation marked rising nationalist sentiment but not electoral politics.

1921–1932: Monarchy and Limited Representation

1921: King Faisal I was installed by the British.

1924: First Constituent Assembly election under British oversight to draft Iraq’s first constitution.

1925: The constitution established a bicameral parliament—Senate (appointed) and Chamber of Deputies (elected)—but suffrage was extremely limited.

1932: Independence and Authoritarian Consolidation

1932: Iraq gained formal independence and joined the League of Nations. Parliamentary elections continued sporadically, but political power remained with the monarchy and military elites.

1946–1958: Fragile Democracy and Coup

1946–1948: Several elections held under the monarchy; opposition boycotts and manipulation were common.

1954: Parliament was dissolved repeatedly, leading to claims of democratic collapse.

1958: 14 July Revolution – General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew the monarchy. Iraq became a republic. Elections were suspended; military-led governance began.

1958–1968: Military Republic and Ba’athist Ascendancy

1961: Draft law for elections under Qasim never implemented.

1963: Ba’athist coup briefly installed new leadership before internal power struggles.

1968: Ba’ath Party seized full power with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Saddam Hussein. Elections became ceremonial.

1970–2002: Saddam Hussein’s Dictatorship

1970: New interim constitution promised elections; never fulfilled democratically.

1980: First parliamentary election under Saddam (became President in 1979). Only Ba’ath Party and allies allowed; parliament had no real power.

1989, 1996, 2000: Staged elections with near-total support for Saddam and Ba’ath candidates.

2003: US-led Invasion and Regime Change

2003: Saddam Hussein overthrown by US-led coalition. The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) took control, banning Ba’ath Party.

2004: Iraqi Governing Council formed as an interim body. Plans for democratic elections initiated.

2005: First Democratic Elections

January 2005: Transitional National Assembly Election – Iraqis voted for the first time in decades in free multiparty elections to draft a constitution.

October 2005: Constitutional referendum approved a new democratic framework.

December 2005: First full Council of Representatives election under the new constitution.

2006–2010: Sectarian Violence and Democratic Fragility

2006: Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister amid rising sectarian strife.

2010: National elections were competitive. Iyad Allawi’s secular bloc won slightly more seats, but al-Maliki retained power via post-election coalitions.

2014: Rise of ISIS and Political Crisis

2014: Parliamentary elections held under the shadow of the ISIS insurgency. Voter turnout dropped; al-Maliki’s bloc dominated, but he was forced out by internal and international pressure.

Haider al-Abadi became PM.

2018: Electoral Reform and Populist Gains

2018: Electoral law reformed (use of biometric IDs, partial manual counting).

Muqtada al-Sadr’s coalition emerged as a surprise front-runner, but government formation was slow and marked by foreign influence (notably Iran and the US).

2019–2021: Protests and Early Elections

2019: Widespread anti-government protests called for electoral and constitutional reforms.

October 2021: Early elections held after the resignation of PM Adel Abdul Mahdi.

Al-Sadr’s bloc again won the most seats but failed to form a government amid boycotts and chaos.

2022–2025: Political Paralysis and a New Balance

October 2022: Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani elected PM after a year-long stalemate, backed by rival Shiite blocs.

2023–2025: Debates continue over further electoral reform—especially seat allocation, district boundaries, and foreign interference—as Iraq moves toward more stable, but still contested, democratic practices.

From the rigid monarchy of the 1920s to the post-Saddam parliamentary democracy, Iraq’s electoral history has been one of turbulence, transformation, and tenacity. While democratic principles were often overshadowed by authoritarianism or violence, the elections of the 21st century—especially 2005 and 2021—mark genuine, if fragile, turning points toward representative governance.

Major Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Iraq from 1900 to 2025

From the early 20th century to the mid-2020s, Iraq's political landscape has undergone seismic changes driven by foreign intervention, domestic uprisings, authoritarianism, and democratic experimentation. The journey from monarchy to authoritarian rule and eventually to a fragile democracy has been punctuated by major global and national events that reshaped the country’s electoral framework and democratic trajectory. Below is a chronological account of these pivotal moments.

1920 – British Mandate and the Aftermath of the San Remo Conference

Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq came under British control via the League of Nations mandate system. The 1920 Iraqi Revolt against British rule, though ultimately suppressed, laid the groundwork for nationalist sentiments. No genuine elections were held under the British mandate, but this period highlighted early Iraqi demands for self-determination.

1932 – Iraq Gains Independence

Iraq formally gained independence and joined the League of Nations. A constitutional monarchy was established under King Faisal I, with a bicameral parliament. However, elections during this period were largely elitist, controlled, and marred by manipulation from palace and military factions.

1958 – Coup d’État and the Fall of the Monarchy

The monarchy was overthrown in the 14 July Revolution led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim. Iraq was declared a republic, ending parliamentary elections under the monarchy. This ushered in a period of coups and authoritarianism that replaced electoral legitimacy with military rule.

1963 – Ba’athist Coup and Authoritarian Consolidation

A US-backed coup briefly installed a Ba’athist government before internal fragmentation led to its collapse. Although elections were promised, none were free or fair. This marked the start of an era dominated by military factions and party-based repression.

1968 – Ba’ath Party Regains Power

The Ba’ath Party returned to power via another coup, and by 1979, Saddam Hussein had assumed full control. Elections existed nominally (such as referenda and staged parliamentary votes), but they were universally viewed as rubber-stamp exercises with no opposition or democratic content.

1991 – Gulf War and the Rise of Regional Autonomy in Kurdistan

Following Iraq’s defeat in the Gulf War, Kurdish regions in the north declared de facto autonomy. In 1992, the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) held its first democratic parliamentary elections – a rare democratic exception in Saddam’s Iraq. This marked a critical departure from Baghdad's centralised authoritarianism.

2003 – US-led Invasion and the Fall of Saddam Hussein

The US invasion toppled Saddam Hussein and dismantled Ba’athist structures. The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) assumed control, leading to a radical overhaul of Iraq’s political system. A transitional administrative law laid the foundation for elections and a new constitution.

2005 – First Democratic Elections Under New Constitution

In January 2005, Iraq held its first multiparty parliamentary elections in decades to form a transitional National Assembly. These elections, though marred by violence and Sunni boycotts, were historic. A constitution was ratified in a referendum later that year, establishing a federal parliamentary republic.

2010 – Electoral Disputes and Rise of Sectarianism

The 2010 parliamentary elections resulted in a deadlock between Nouri al-Maliki’s State of Law Coalition and Ayad Allawi’s Iraqiya bloc. Legal and political manoeuvring allowed Maliki to remain in power, raising concerns about democratic backsliding and judicial partiality.

2018 – Voter Apathy and Electoral Reform Pressure

Low turnout and widespread accusations of fraud in the 2018 parliamentary elections further eroded public trust in electoral institutions. The rise of protest movements demanding reform accelerated the push toward electoral restructuring.

2019–2021 – Tishreen Protest Movement and Electoral Reform

Mass protests erupted over corruption, unemployment, and political stagnation. The Tishreen movement led to the resignation of Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi and triggered electoral reforms. A new electoral law was passed in 2020, moving Iraq from a list-based proportional system to single non-transferable vote districts to encourage independent candidates.

2021 – Early Elections and Independent Candidates’ Gains

Iraq held early parliamentary elections under the new electoral law. Although turnout remained low, independents and anti-establishment candidates gained significant ground. This marked a key moment in shifting political power away from entrenched blocs.

2023–2025 – Ongoing Reform and Democratic Struggles

Efforts to institutionalise electoral reforms continue amidst economic instability and militia interference in politics. Though Iraq remains a democracy on paper, systemic corruption, sectarian entrenchment, and political fragmentation continue to undermine genuine democratic consolidation.

Iraq’s electoral history reflects a broader struggle between authoritarian legacy and democratic aspiration. From monarchic elitism to Ba’athist totalitarianism and finally to post-2003 electoral democracy, each phase was shaped by both internal dynamics and global geopolitical shifts. Whether Iraq’s democracy solidifies or falters in the years ahead will depend on sustained reform, civic mobilisation, and curbing elite impunity.

CSV-style table: General elections in Iraq (1900–2025)

Note: 2025 election data is projected/not yet held.

Overview of General Elections in Iraq (1900–2025)

Iraq’s electoral history throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries reflects a tumultuous journey marked by monarchy, military coups, authoritarian rule, and nascent democracy. The earliest general elections under the 1925 constitution attempted to establish parliamentary governance under the Hashemite monarchy, with modest voter turnout and limited franchise.

Military interventions interrupted democratic progress notably in 1936, and it was not until after the 1958 revolution that the monarchy was overthrown and a republic declared, suspending electoral processes for a time. The 1960s saw attempts to revive parliamentary elections under nationalist and pan-Arabist banners, but these were soon overtaken by the Ba’ath Party’s one-party rule following their 1968 coup.

Under Saddam Hussein’s Ba’athist regime, elections were tightly controlled with reported high turnouts, serving more to consolidate regime legitimacy than reflect popular will. The Gulf War and international sanctions in the 1990s further isolated Iraq politically.

The 2003 US-led invasion and fall of Saddam’s government ushered in a new era of multi-party parliamentary elections, starting in 2005. These elections were marked by significant sectarian divides, security challenges, and fluctuating voter engagement. Turnout peaked in the early post-invasion years but declined over subsequent cycles amid ongoing violence, corruption allegations, and political instability.

The 2018 and 2021 elections witnessed particularly low participation, reflecting widespread disillusionment. Political coalitions such as the United Iraqi Alliance and the Coordination Framework dominated successive parliaments, grappling with issues including national reconstruction, security threats from ISIS, and demands for governance reforms.

Looking ahead to the 2025 elections, Iraq faces the critical challenge of strengthening democratic institutions amid persistent instability and socio-political fragmentation. Electoral reforms and broader civic engagement remain essential for the country’s democratic consolidation.

Global Electoral Trends in Iraq: 1900 to 2025

1900s–1920s: Foundations under Colonial and Monarchical Rule
In the early 20th century, Iraq’s electoral processes were largely non-existent or heavily controlled under Ottoman and later British colonial administration. The establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq in 1921 introduced the first semblance of electoral politics with limited suffrage and elite-dominated parliamentary elections. These elections lacked broad democratic participation, serving more to legitimise monarchy rule than to empower the population.

1930s–1940s: Nascent Parliamentary Democracy and Political Instability
The interwar period saw the emergence of parliamentary institutions and early experiments with electoral politics, but these were repeatedly undermined by military coups and royal interventions. Elections were sporadic, often manipulated, reflecting a fragile and constrained democracy that struggled under authoritarian influences.

1950s–1960s: Authoritarian Rollbacks and Military Dominance
Following the 1958 revolution that overthrew the monarchy, Iraq entered a period dominated by military and authoritarian regimes. Electoral processes were largely suspended or transformed into controlled plebiscites to reinforce regime legitimacy. Genuine electoral competition vanished as successive governments restricted political pluralism and suppressed opposition.

1970s–1980s: One-Party Rule and Electoral Authoritarianism
Under Ba’ath Party rule, Iraq experienced a period of entrenched authoritarianism. Elections became ritualistic events, with the ruling party monopolising political power. The state used electoral innovations such as mass mobilisation and referenda to project an image of popular legitimacy, though in reality these processes were tightly controlled and non-competitive.

1990s: Sanctions, Conflict, and Electoral Stagnation
The 1990s were marked by international sanctions and internal repression, which stalled any meaningful electoral development. Saddam Hussein’s regime maintained absolute control through sham elections and no genuine democratic reforms. The decade saw a rollback of political freedoms amid escalating conflict and isolation.

2000s: Democratization Attempts Post-Invasion
The 2003 US-led invasion dismantled the Ba’athist regime, leading to Iraq’s first multiparty elections in decades. The 2005 elections marked a significant democratization milestone, introducing a new constitution and electoral innovations such as proportional representation. Despite considerable challenges — including violence and sectarian tensions — Iraq made strides toward building a pluralistic electoral system.

2010s: Fragile Democracy and Electoral Challenges
Elections continued amid ongoing security concerns and political fragmentation. Electoral processes became more institutionalised, but allegations of fraud, voter intimidation, and political interference persisted. Attempts to strengthen electoral laws and improve transparency were hampered by entrenched clientelism and authoritarian tendencies.

2020s: Continued Democratic Struggles and Reforms
Into the 2020s, Iraq’s electoral landscape remains a contested space between democratic aspirations and authoritarian impulses. Recent elections have seen increased participation by youth and reformist groups demanding greater accountability. However, challenges such as electoral violence, systemic corruption, and external influence pose ongoing risks to democratic consolidation.

Summary: Over the course of 125 years, Iraq’s electoral history reflects a pendulum between authoritarian control and democratic experimentation. While early decades were dominated by elite rule and military regimes, the post-2003 period represents the most significant democratic breakthrough, though fraught with persistent obstacles. Electoral innovations, including constitutional reforms and proportional representation, have laid foundations for democracy, but the path remains uncertain amid ongoing political instability and authoritarian backsliding.

Why the 2006 Iraqi Election Was Controversial – A Political Analyst's Perspective

The 2006 parliamentary elections in Iraq were hailed by international observers as a critical milestone in the country’s post-Saddam democratic journey. Yet, beneath the surface of celebratory headlines and purple-inked fingers lay a complex, polarising and ultimately controversial political moment that exposed the deep fissures within Iraqi society.

Sectarian Shadows and Power Imbalance

At the heart of the controversy was the deepening sectarian divide that the electoral process failed to bridge — and arguably exacerbated. The election, held under a proportional representation system, saw voters casting their ballots largely along ethnic and religious lines. The result was a fragmented parliament dominated by sectarian blocs: the Shiite United Iraqi Alliance (UIA), the Kurdish coalition, and a marginalised Sunni front.

While proportional representation was theoretically designed to ensure inclusivity, in practice it entrenched sectarian identity as the primary mode of political mobilisation. The Sunni Arab population, having boycotted the 2005 elections and felt excluded from the post-2003 political architecture, viewed the 2006 process with suspicion. Although turnout among Sunnis improved, widespread allegations of voter intimidation, gerrymandering in contested areas like Kirkuk, and the dominance of religious parties raised fears of systemic marginalisation.

Violence, Instability and the Democratic Dilemma

The backdrop to the 2006 election was one of escalating violence. Insurgency, terrorist attacks, and targeted assassinations were commonplace. Many Iraqis voted not out of enthusiasm but out of fear — fear of further instability, of being left unrepresented in an emerging order increasingly dominated by militias and foreign interests.

Moreover, the involvement of regional actors, particularly Iran and the United States, in shaping political outcomes fuelled accusations that Iraq’s democracy was compromised. The UIA’s perceived proximity to Tehran stoked Sunni Arab anxieties, while U.S. pressure to maintain a unified Iraq government led to political compromises that diluted genuine accountability.

From Electoral Victory to Political Paralysis

Although the UIA emerged as the dominant bloc, the post-election period descended into months of political deadlock over the formation of a government. The eventual appointment of Nouri al-Maliki as Prime Minister — a relative unknown — reflected not national consensus but a compromise driven by external mediation. This gridlock not only undermined public confidence in the democratic process but allowed militias to grow stronger and violence to surge — culminating in what many describe as the start of Iraq’s civil war in 2006–2007.

A Democratic Façade or a Step Forward?

To the outside world, Iraq’s 2006 election symbolised hope — the image of Iraqis defying threats to vote was a powerful narrative. Yet for many Iraqis, it marked the entrenchment of sectarianism, the beginning of political gridlock, and the failure of electoral democracy to deliver tangible peace or prosperity. As a political analyst, one must conclude that while the election was procedurally democratic, its outcome — and the system underpinning it — was structurally flawed.

The 2006 Iraqi election thus serves as a cautionary tale: elections alone do not make a democracy, especially when institutions are weak, external influence is strong, and the nation remains fractured along lines that politics fails to heal.

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