A Historical Overview of Sri Lanka’s Electoral System (1900–2025): From Colonial Majoritarianism to Proportional Representation-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

The evolution of Sri Lanka’s electoral system from 1900 to 2025 reflects the broader political and constitutional transformations the island underwent—from colonial rule to independence, from majoritarianism to proportional representation, and through periods of democratic consolidation and constitutional crisis. This article traces the key phases and structural features of the electoral system used in Sri Lanka across this period.

Colonial Era (1900–1947): Restricted Franchise and Majoritarian Voting

Prior to independence in 1948, Sri Lanka—then Ceylon—was a British Crown colony. The first steps towards representative government began with the Donoughmore Constitution of 1931, which introduced universal adult franchise, a notable achievement in the colonial world at the time.

1931–1947 Electoral System:
Under this constitution, Ceylon held elections to the State Council. These elections used a majoritarian (First-Past-The-Post) system in single-member constituencies. Despite the progressive franchise, the State Council combined legislative and executive functions, limiting genuine democratic accountability.

Voting & Representation:
Representation during this era was limited, with electorates often gerrymandered to favour elites. Ethnic minorities, especially the Tamils, were underrepresented despite universal franchise.

Post-Independence (1948–1977): Westminster Model and FPTP Dominance

After gaining independence in 1948, Sri Lanka adopted a parliamentary democracy based on the British Westminster model. Elections were held for the House of Representatives, and later the National State Assembly, under a First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system.

Key Elections:

1948: The first general elections as an independent nation continued with FPTP in single-member constituencies.

1956, 1960, 1970: These elections saw rising Sinhala nationalist sentiment and the marginalisation of Tamil and leftist parties under the FPTP model.

Systemic Flaws:

The FPTP system led to disproportional representation, with ruling parties often securing a large majority in Parliament despite winning only a plurality of votes.

This contributed to ethnic tensions, as Tamil parties were underrepresented despite their significant share of the national vote.

Electoral Reforms and the Shift to Proportional Representation (1978–present)

The most dramatic change in Sri Lanka’s electoral system came with the 1978 Constitution, which introduced:

An Executive Presidency.

A Proportional Representation (PR) system for parliamentary elections.

Key Features of the PR System (Post-1989):

Multi-member districts: The 160+ single-member constituencies were replaced by 22 electoral districts, each electing multiple MPs.

Proportional Allocation: Seats were allocated according to party lists based on the percentage of valid votes received in each district.

Preference Voting: Voters cast one vote for a party and can mark preferences among candidates from that party list (known as manape voting).

National List: A separate set of MPs are appointed by parties based on their total national vote share.

First Election under PR:

1989 General Election: This was the first held under the proportional representation system, aiming to correct the FPTP-induced distortions and offer better representation to minorities and smaller parties.

21st Century Developments and Challenges (2000–2025)

While PR was designed to ensure fairness, several challenges emerged:

Fragmentation: The PR system encouraged the rise of smaller parties and shifting alliances, sometimes leading to unstable coalitions.

Preference Vote Competition: Intra-party rivalry increased due to preference voting, weakening party unity and encouraging corruption.

Calls for Electoral Reform: Efforts to introduce a mixed electoral system (combining FPTP and PR) gained momentum, especially after 2015, when President Maithripala Sirisena promised reform.

2020 Parliamentary Election:

Held under the PR system, with some adjustments in district boundaries and emphasis on digitised voter rolls.

Proposed Mixed System:

Though discussed extensively, as of 2025, Sri Lanka still primarily uses a Proportional Representation system with preferential voting and a National List, though electoral reforms remain a topic of debate.

A Shift Towards Fairer Representation, But Still Imperfect

Sri Lanka’s journey from a British-inherited majoritarian electoral system to a proportional representation model reflects its complex political and ethnic landscape. While PR corrected many representational imbalances, it brought new challenges—particularly in governance and intra-party democracy. Electoral reforms remain central to the country’s efforts to balance fair representation with political stability.

Quick Reference Summary: Electoral Systems Used in Sri Lanka

When Did Sri Lanka Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

Sri Lanka’s journey towards a multi-party democratic electoral system is deeply intertwined with its colonial legacy, constitutional reforms, and evolving political landscape. The island nation, formerly known as Ceylon, transitioned into a multi-party democracy in the mid-20th century, officially embracing competitive elections and universal suffrage under British influence.

Colonial Beginnings and the Path to Representation

The initial steps towards representative government began during British colonial rule. In 1833, the Colebrooke-Cameron Reforms introduced the Executive and Legislative Councils, but these bodies offered limited local participation. It wasn’t until the Donoughmore Constitution of 1931 that a significant breakthrough occurred — Ceylon was granted universal adult suffrage, making it one of the first non-Western colonies to allow all adults to vote regardless of ethnicity or gender.

However, this new State Council did not follow a Westminster-style party system. Members were elected from constituencies, but political parties played a minimal role in structuring governance.

Establishment of Parliamentary Democracy (1947)

The true transition to a multi-party democratic system came with the Soulbury Constitution of 1947. This constitution laid the foundation for a Westminster-style parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature, officially recognising the role of political parties and formal opposition. That same year, Ceylon held its first general election under a multi-party system and first-past-the-post (FPTP) voting system.

Key political parties emerged during this period, including:

United National Party (UNP) – the dominant centre-right party at independence

Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) – a Trotskyist left-wing party

All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) – representing Tamil minorities

Communist Party of Ceylon – also gaining traction among the working class

These parties competed vigorously in the 1947 general election, and the formation of a coalition government marked Sri Lanka’s formal entry into the world of multi-party democracy.

Full Independence and Democratic Continuity (1948–1972)

Following independence on 4 February 1948, Ceylon retained its democratic institutions. Despite ethnic tensions and socio-economic challenges, elections continued regularly, often leading to peaceful transfers of power between parties. The rise of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) in the 1950s marked the beginning of a vibrant two-party competition, with the SLFP and UNP alternating in power for decades.

Republican Constitution and Further Reforms

In 1972, Ceylon became the Republic of Sri Lanka, adopting a new constitution that reaffirmed the democratic framework. By 1978, the Second Republican Constitution introduced an executive presidency and replaced the FPTP system with proportional representation (PR) — yet still within a multi-party democratic context.

Sri Lanka transitioned to a multi-party democratic electoral system in 1947, with the introduction of the Soulbury Constitution and its first parliamentary election. This marked the formal adoption of party-based competition, electoral accountability, and a functioning legislature. Though the country has faced periods of authoritarian tendencies, civil unrest, and emergency rule, it has largely retained its commitment to multi-party democracy — a legacy rooted in both colonial reforms and indigenous political mobilisation.

Sri Lanka’s National Election Results (1900–2025): A Historical Overview

Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, has experienced a dynamic electoral journey from colonial rule to a vibrant multi-party democracy. The island’s national elections began in the colonial era with limited franchise and evolved into universal suffrage and a competitive parliamentary system. Below is a summary of Sri Lanka’s key general election results, including party performances, seat distribution, and voter turnout, from 1931 (when elections were first introduced) to the most recent polls.

Pre-Independence Electoral Landscape

1931 – First State Council Election

System: Donoughmore Constitution, no political parties officially recognised.

Seats contested: 50 (on territorial basis)

Franchise: Adult universal suffrage introduced (rare for the time).

Outcome: Candidates ran as independents, though some aligned with groups like the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP).

Turnout: ~61.2%

1936 – Second State Council Election

Seats contested: 50

Main Party Influence: LSSP became more prominent

Turnout: ~60%

???????? Post-Independence Parliamentary Elections (1947–2020)

1947 General Election (First under Soulbury Constitution)

Main Parties:

United National Party (UNP) – 42 seats

Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) – 10 seats

All Ceylon Tamil Congress – 7 seats

Communist Party – 3 seats

Independents and others – 25 seats

Total Seats: 95

Outcome: UNP formed coalition government.

Turnout: 61.3%

1952 General Election

UNP: 54

LSSP: 9

Federal Party: 2

Independents/Others: 30

Total Seats: 95

Outcome: Dudley Senanayake (UNP) continued governance.

Turnout: 70.2%

1956 General Election

Mahajana Eksath Peramuna (MEP): 51

UNP: 8

Federal Party: 10

Others: 26

Total Seats: 95

Outcome: S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike’s MEP achieved a landslide.

Turnout: 70.4%

1960 (March) General Election

UNP: 50

SLFP: 46

Federal Party: 15

Outcome: Hung parliament – no majority

Turnout: 78%

1960 (July) General Election

SLFP: 75

UNP: 30

Federal Party: 16

Outcome: Sirimavo Bandaranaike became world’s first female PM

Turnout: 78.9%

1965 General Election

UNP: 66

SLFP: 41

Federal Party: 14

Outcome: UNP coalition government

Turnout: 82.1%

1970 General Election

United Front (SLFP + LSSP + CP): 116

UNP: 17

Federal Party: 13

Outcome: Socialist-leaning government under Sirimavo Bandaranaike

Turnout: 85.3%

1977 General Election (Pivotal Moment)

UNP: 140 (out of 168)

SLFP: 8

Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF): 18

Others: 2

Outcome: Massive UNP landslide under J.R. Jayewardene

Turnout: 81.5%

Significance: Introduction of Executive Presidency soon after.

Under Proportional Representation (from 1989)

1989 General Election (First PR system)

UNP: 125

SLFP: 67

TULF/Other Tamil parties: 10

JVP: Boycotted

Turnout: 63.6%

1994 General Election

People’s Alliance (SLFP-led): 105

UNP: 94

TULF and others: 16

Outcome: Chandrika Kumaratunga becomes PM, then President.

Turnout: 76.2%

2000 General Election

People’s Alliance: 107

UNP: 89

JVP: 10

Others: 18

Turnout: 75.5%

2001 General Election

UNP-led United National Front: 109

PA (SLFP): 77

JVP: 16

Others: 22

Outcome: UNF forms government

Turnout: 75.9%

2004 General Election

UPFA (SLFP + JVP): 105

UNP: 82

TNA: 22

Others: 16

Turnout: 76%

2010 General Election

UPFA: 144

UNF (UNP-led): 60

TNA: 14

Turnout: 61.3%

2015 General Election

UNFGG (UNP-led alliance): 106

UPFA (SLFP): 95

TNA: 16

JVP: 6

Turnout: 77.7%

2020 General Election

Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna (SLPP): 145

Samagi Jana Balawegaya (SJB): 54

ITAK (Tamil party): 10

JJB (JVP-led): 3

UNP: 1

Turnout: 71%

Projected 2025 General Election

As of now, Sri Lanka is expected to hold its next parliamentary election in 2025. Political alignments are fluid, but key contenders will include the SLPP, SJB, and a rejuvenated UNP or new opposition coalition. No official results yet.

Summary Table of Selected Elections

Sri Lanka’s electoral history reflects a shift from colonial governance to a competitive democracy with multiple ideological transitions—from socialism to liberalism, from war to post-conflict politics. The high voter turnout across decades demonstrates strong civic participation, even amidst turbulent times.

For detailed constituency-wise results or individual party performances over time, consult the Department of Elections Sri Lanka or the Parliament Secretariat archives.

The Political Landscape of Sri Lanka (1900–2025): Major Parties, Leaders, and Electoral Outcomes

Sri Lanka’s electoral journey from colonial subjugation to a multi-party democracy has seen a vibrant transformation in political representation. From early 20th-century limited franchise politics to full universal suffrage and contentious multiparty elections, the island's political history is both complex and dynamic. Below is a chronological overview of the major political parties, leaders, and election outcomes in Sri Lanka from 1900 to 2025.

Pre-Independence Political Milieu (1900–1947)

Before 1931, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) had no elected legislature. The Donoughmore Constitution of 1931 introduced limited self-government and universal adult franchise – a first in Asia.

Key Party: No formal political parties existed until the 1940s; representation was mostly elite-led, dominated by the Ceylon National Congress (CNC).

Key Leaders: Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan, Sir Ponnambalam Arunachalam, D. S. Senanayake.

Outcome: The 1931 and 1936 State Council elections laid the groundwork for party politics.

Post-Independence and the Rise of Party Politics (1947–1970)

1947 General Election (First Parliamentary Election)

Major Parties:

United National Party (UNP) – founded by D.S. Senanayake.

Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) – Trotskyist, left-wing.

Communist Party of Ceylon, Tamil Congress.

Leaders: D. S. Senanayake (UNP), N. M. Perera (LSSP).

Outcome: UNP won 42 of 95 seats; D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister.

1956 Watershed Election

Major Parties:

Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) – founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike.

UNP, LSSP.

Outcome: SLFP-led coalition won a landslide (51 seats); Bandaranaike introduced Sinhala as the official language, fuelling ethnic tensions.

1960 (March & July) Elections

Key Figure: Sirimavo Bandaranaike – first female PM in the world.

Outcome: SLFP won July polls; Sirimavo assumed office.

Ethnic Conflict and Political Flux (1970–2009)

1970 Election

Coalition: United Front (SLFP, LSSP, Communist Party).

Leader: Sirimavo Bandaranaike.

Outcome: Massive victory (116 seats); 1972 Constitution made Sri Lanka a republic.

1977 Election

Major Party: UNP under J. R. Jayewardene.

Outcome: Landslide UNP win (140+ seats); executive presidency introduced in 1978.

1989–2001 Period

Main Parties:

UNP (Jayewardene, Premadasa, then Wickremesinghe).

SLFP (Chandrika Kumaratunga from 1994).

Context: Civil war with LTTE, youth insurgencies, and political assassinations.

Notable PMs/Presidents: R. Premadasa, Chandrika Kumaratunga.

Post-War Politics and Power Shifts (2009–2025)

2005–2015: The Rajapaksa Era

Key Figure: Mahinda Rajapaksa (SLFP/UPFA).

Outcome: Defeated LTTE in 2009; won 2010 election; later ousted in 2015.

2015 Election

Parties:

United National Front for Good Governance (UNFGG).

SLFP.

Leaders: Maithripala Sirisena (SLFP), Ranil Wickremesinghe (UNP).

Outcome: UNFGG won a plurality; Wickremesinghe became PM.

2019 Presidential & 2020 General Elections

New Force: Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna (SLPP).

Leaders: Gotabaya Rajapaksa, Mahinda Rajapaksa.

Outcome: SLPP landslide; Gotabaya became President, Mahinda PM.

2022 Economic Crisis and Political Realignment

Context: Severe economic meltdown led to mass protests.

Resignations: Gotabaya Rajapaksa fled and resigned.

New Leadership: Ranil Wickremesinghe appointed President (UNP support with SLPP backing).

Outcome: Collapse of Rajapaksa dominance.

2024/2025 Election Outlook

Emerging Parties:

NPP/JVP (National People's Power) – growing popularity.

UNP, SJB (Samagi Jana Balawegaya), SLPP weakened.

Potential Leaders: Anura Kumara Dissanayake (NPP), Sajith Premadasa (SJB), Ranil Wickremesinghe (UNP).

Projected Outcome (2025): Highly competitive; NPP and SJB expected to challenge traditional parties.

From colonial elites and socialist movements to dynastic dominance and new protest-led alternatives, Sri Lanka's political theatre from 1900 to 2025 has been marked by dramatic changes. While the UNP and SLFP once dominated, newer entities like the SLPP, SJB, and NPP now shape a multipolar political environment. As 2025 approaches, voter sentiment reflects a demand for reform, transparency, and accountability.

Electoral Violence & Irregularities in Sri Lanka (1900–2025): A Historical Overview

Sri Lanka’s electoral history, spanning from colonial rule to post-independence democracy, has been marked by both democratic milestones and recurring episodes of violence, intimidation, and procedural irregularities. While the island has largely upheld regular elections, several incidents between 1900 and 2025 have raised serious concerns over electoral integrity.

Electoral Violence and Irregularities: Key Incidents

1956 General Election

The watershed 1956 election that brought S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike to power witnessed heightened ethnic tensions. Reports of communal clashes, particularly targeting Tamil minorities, were recorded, though they did not significantly disrupt the vote nationwide.

1970 & 1977 Elections

While both elections saw high voter turnouts, the 1977 general election was especially contentious. The United National Party (UNP) led by J.R. Jayewardene achieved a landslide victory. Opposition parties, particularly the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) and the Communist Party, alleged vote rigging and suppression in certain constituencies. However, no official inquiry overturned results.

1981 Jaffna District Development Council Elections

A precursor to civil war-era violence, these elections were marred by extreme violence. The burning of the Jaffna public library by government-aligned mobs cast a shadow over the credibility of the electoral exercise. Tamil political parties and civilians faced intimidation, widely regarded as a turning point in Sinhala-Tamil relations.

1982 Presidential Referendum

The controversial referendum to extend Parliament without a general election was riddled with allegations of vote tampering and misuse of state resources. Critics labelled it a "democratic subversion", though it passed with a claimed majority.

1988 Presidential & 1989 General Elections

Held during the height of the JVP insurrection and escalating civil war, both elections were marred by deadly violence. Thousands were killed in political violence across the South, and voter turnout in conflict areas was severely restricted. Intimidation of candidates and election officials was widespread.

2000 Parliamentary Election

Amid renewed civil war, the 2000 election witnessed several attacks blamed on the LTTE. There were bombings in Colombo and disruptions in Northern and Eastern provinces. Nonetheless, voting proceeded in most districts under tight security.

2005 Presidential Election

Although conducted nationwide, Tamil voter turnout in LTTE-held areas was heavily suppressed. The LTTE enforced a boycott, intimidating Tamil voters and preventing polling in key districts like Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu.

2010 Presidential Election

This election, conducted after the defeat of the LTTE, featured significant irregularities. Then-candidate General Sarath Fonseka was arrested shortly after the polls, raising alarms over political repression. International observers noted misuse of state media, government resources, and intimidation of voters and journalists.

2020 Parliamentary Election (COVID-19 era)

Delayed due to the pandemic, the 2020 polls were eventually held under strict health protocols. While largely peaceful, the opposition Samagi Jana Balawegaya raised concerns about media bias and the politicisation of the electoral commission.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections (1900–2025)

From the communal tensions of the 1950s to the civil war-era suppression of votes, Sri Lanka’s electoral journey has often been contested. Although elections have been held with relative frequency, challenges to free and fair voting—whether due to violence, intimidation, or administrative bias—have at times undermined democratic processes. Electoral reforms and independent monitoring continue to be vital for strengthening democratic trust in the island nation.

Sri Lanka’s Electoral Democracy: Democracy Index and Reform (1900–2025)

Sri Lanka’s journey through electoral democracy from 1900 to 2025 is a story marked by early democratic promise, periodic institutional reform, and phases of political backsliding. The island nation, formerly known as Ceylon under British rule, was among the first in Asia to establish a universal franchise and parliamentary tradition. Yet, its record on democratic resilience has been uneven, particularly during periods of ethnic conflict and centralised rule.

Early Democratic Foundations (1900–1948)

Sri Lanka's electoral roots trace back to the Donoughmore Constitution of 1931, under which universal adult suffrage was granted—remarkably progressive for a British colony at the time. The State Council elections of 1931 allowed both men and women above 21, irrespective of caste or class, to vote. This marked Sri Lanka as a democratic pioneer in Asia.

However, the electoral process was still heavily influenced by the colonial administrative framework, with limited legislative powers.

Post-Independence Democracy and Stability (1948–1970)

After gaining independence in 1948, Sri Lanka adopted the Westminster model with regular elections, a parliamentary system, and peaceful transfers of power. The United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) alternated in government through competitive elections.

During this phase, the country was generally rated favourably on democratic indices. The Electoral Commission (then the Department of Elections) was considered relatively independent, and voter turnout remained high—typically above 70%.

Ethno-Political Tensions and Democratic Decline (1970–1990)

The period from the 1970s witnessed significant democratic backsliding:

In 1972, a new Republican Constitution was introduced, abolishing the Senate and concentrating power in the hands of the Prime Minister.

The 1978 Constitution, enacted under J.R. Jayewardene, replaced the parliamentary model with an executive presidency, greatly centralising authority and undermining parliamentary checks and balances.

Electoral reforms such as proportional representation were introduced in 1978, aimed at fairness but criticised for weakening the voter-MP link.

From 1983 onwards, the eruption of the civil war between the Sri Lankan state and the LTTE severely disrupted democratic practices, especially in the North and East.

International democracy indices, such as Freedom House and later the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), began to downgrade Sri Lanka’s democratic status, often rating it as partly free or a flawed democracy due to civil conflict, press restrictions, and emergency regulations.

Electoral Reform and Post-War Politics (1990–2015)

Despite the conflict, Sri Lanka maintained competitive multiparty elections, with peaceful regime changes in 1994, 2001, and 2005. However, allegations of electoral malpractice, media bias, and judicial manipulation persisted.

After the end of the civil war in 2009, the 2010 presidential election saw the consolidation of power under Mahinda Rajapaksa, raising concerns over authoritarian tendencies and erosion of democratic institutions.

In 2015, a surprising electoral shift occurred when Maithripala Sirisena won the presidency on a reformist platform. His government implemented the 19th Amendment, curbing presidential powers and restoring term limits—an important democratic milestone.

Recent Democratic Challenges and Outlook (2015–2025)

However, the post-2015 gains proved fragile:

In 2018, a constitutional crisis erupted when Sirisena attempted to dismiss the Prime Minister, a move ruled unconstitutional.

The 20th Amendment (2020), passed under President Gotabaya Rajapaksa, reversed many checks introduced by the 19th, again centralising executive power and undermining institutional independence.

The 2022 economic crisis, which led to mass protests and the resignation of Gotabaya Rajapaksa, reflected public frustration with authoritarian governance, corruption, and poor economic management.

In 2023–2025, there have been calls for electoral reform, including re-establishing independent commissions and introducing constitutional amendments to reinstate term limits and balance executive power.

Sri Lanka’s Democracy Index Rankings

Over the years, Sri Lanka’s position in global democracy rankings has fluctuated:

Freedom House scores varied between “Free” in the 1970s, to “Partly Free” from the 1980s onwards.

The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Democracy Index consistently ranked Sri Lanka as a “Flawed Democracy”, with scores hovering between 5.0 and 6.5 (out of 10) in the 2006–2024 period.

Factors behind this include media censorship, judicial interference, abuse of presidential powers, and weakness in civil liberties.

Sri Lanka’s electoral democracy has shown resilience through regular elections and political pluralism. However, the system has been undermined at various points by ethnic conflict, executive overreach, and institutional weakening. The period between 2015 and 2020 offered a brief democratic revival, but recent setbacks underscore the fragility of democratic reform. As of 2025, the future of Sri Lanka’s electoral democracy depends largely on the restoration of institutional independence, constitutional reforms, and civil society vigilance.

A Century of Change: Major Electoral Reforms in Sri Lanka from 1900 to 2025

Over the course of more than a century, Sri Lanka has undergone sweeping electoral reforms that transformed it from a British colonial dependency to a vibrant, albeit at times fragile, democracy. From the limited franchise of the early 20th century to the introduction of proportional representation and digitised voter systems, the island nation's electoral landscape mirrors its broader political evolution. This article outlines the major electoral reforms introduced in Sri Lanka from 1900 to 2025.

The Early Colonial Franchise (1900–1931)

At the start of the 20th century, Sri Lanka—then Ceylon—operated under a colonial administrative structure with virtually no public representation. However, reforms slowly began:

1910 – The McCallum Reforms: Marked the first significant change, introducing a partially elected Legislative Council. The electorate was extremely limited, restricted to wealthy, English-speaking men.

1920 & 1924 Reforms: Expanded the Legislative Council further, increasing the number of elected members but retaining property and educational qualifications for voters.

Universal Suffrage and the Donoughmore Constitution (1931)

1931 – Donoughmore Constitution: A landmark reform, granting universal adult suffrage to all Ceylonese over the age of 21—regardless of gender, ethnicity, or income. This made Ceylon one of the first countries in Asia to implement such democratic inclusivity.

A State Council replaced the Legislative Council, combining both legislative and executive functions. However, it was not a fully independent or sovereign body.

Post-Independence Electoral Foundations (1947–1978)

1947 – Soulbury Constitution & First Parliamentary Elections: Ahead of independence in 1948, Sri Lanka held its first parliamentary elections under the British-inspired Westminster model. A first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral system was used for single-member constituencies.

1959 – Delimitation Commission: Created to redraw electoral boundaries more fairly, responding to population growth and movement.

1960s–70s: Calls grew for a more equitable electoral system as FPTP began producing significant disproportionalities in representation.

Proportional Representation and Constitutional Overhaul (1978)

1978 – Second Republican Constitution: A defining moment in Sri Lanka’s electoral history, ushering in:

The Proportional Representation (PR) system, replacing FPTP.

Introduction of multi-member electoral districts based on administrative boundaries.

Voters now cast two ballots—one for a party and one for a preferential candidate.

Executive Presidency: A powerful new role created, elected separately by nationwide popular vote.

This major overhaul sought to address ethnic tensions and political instability, although it had its own drawbacks, including weakening direct MP-constituent links.

Electoral Institutions and Safeguards (1980s–2000s)

1981 – Establishment of the Elections Commissioner's Office: Aimed to ensure fairer and more efficient election administration.

1999 – Electronic Voter Registration Pilots: Although in limited use, this marked the beginning of digitisation in the electoral process.

2001 – 17th Amendment: Created the Constitutional Council to ensure more independent appointments to key bodies, including the Elections Commission.

Good Governance Reforms and Modernisation (2015–2020)

2015 – 19th Amendment: Limited presidential powers, restored the independent Elections Commission, and reduced term lengths. The amendment also enhanced transparency and accountability during elections.

2017 – Mixed Electoral System for Local Government: Introduced a hybrid of FPTP and PR at local government level to balance representation and local accountability.

2019 – Voter Education and Digitisation: Widespread digital campaigns and improved voter databases enhanced public awareness and electoral roll integrity.

The Contemporary Era and Post-COVID Adjustments (2020–2025)

2020 – COVID-Era Electoral Adjustments: Special health protocols were integrated into voting procedures, including staggered voting times, mask mandates, and sanitation protocols.

2022 – Debate Over Electoral System Reform: In response to economic and political crises, there was renewed public discourse about returning to a modified FPTP or mixed system to strengthen direct accountability.

2023 – Voter Identity Digitisation Drive: The Elections Commission launched a national campaign to issue biometric voter ID cards linked with the national database to curb fraud.

2025 – (Anticipated): Continued discussion on introducing electronic voting, diaspora voting rights, and a possible return to more constituency-based representation to counterbalance the drawbacks of PR.

Sri Lanka’s electoral reform journey is emblematic of a nation striving for democratic maturity amidst ethnic strife, economic hardship, and political flux. From a restricted colonial franchise to a fully enfranchised digital electorate, each reform reflected the challenges and aspirations of its time. While no system has proven perfect, the resilience of the electoral process in Sri Lanka remains a critical pillar of its democratic fabric.

A Comparative Analysis of Sri Lanka’s Electoral Systems from 1900 to 2025: Which Era Was More Democratic?

Between 1900 and 2025, Sri Lanka underwent a remarkable transformation in its electoral system—from a limited colonial franchise to a fully-fledged, though periodically challenged, democratic framework. Comparing Sri Lanka’s electoral systems across this time frame is not a juxtaposition of two different countries but rather of two very different political epochs: the colonial-to-early-independence period (1900–1977) and the post-republican-to-contemporary phase (1978–2025). Which period was more democratic depends on how we evaluate democracy: by suffrage, representation, transparency, or institutional checks.

Colonial Rule and Early Independence (1900–1977): An Evolving Franchise

In the early 20th century, Sri Lanka—then Ceylon—was under British rule. The first notable step toward electoral democracy came with the Donoughmore Constitution (1931), which introduced universal adult franchise, making Sri Lanka the first British colony in Asia to grant voting rights to all citizens over 21, regardless of gender or ethnicity.

Elections were held under a first-past-the-post (FPTP) system, where the candidate with the most votes in a constituency won. This system continued post-independence in 1948. While it fostered strong constituency ties, it also amplified ethnic majoritarianism—most notably favouring Sinhala-Buddhist parties and marginalising Tamil and Muslim minorities.

Throughout this era, voter participation was generally high, and the Department of Elections (established in 1955) was respected for its autonomy. Nevertheless, increasing ethnic polarisation and majoritarian politics laid the groundwork for civil unrest.

Republican Reforms and Proportional Representation (1978–2025): A Double-Edged Sword

The 1978 Constitution, ushering in a powerful executive presidency under J.R. Jayewardene, marked a dramatic shift. It introduced a Proportional Representation (PR) system for parliamentary elections to ensure fairer minority representation.

Under PR, voters cast ballots for parties in multi-member districts. Parliamentary seats are allocated according to the proportion of votes each party receives. This was a democratically fairer system in terms of representation, particularly benefiting minority parties and smaller political groups.

However, the same period saw the erosion of checks and balances, with presidential powers overshadowing parliamentary sovereignty. The 18th Amendment (2010) eliminated presidential term limits, raising concerns about authoritarian drift. This was later counterbalanced by the 19th Amendment (2015), which attempted to restore democratic norms, only to be partly reversed by the 20th Amendment (2020).

The 21st Amendment (2022) aimed to curb excessive executive powers and strengthen independent commissions, showing a pushback toward democratic accountability.

Which Period Was More Democratic?

Representation:
Post-1978 PR system is more democratic in terms of inclusivity, giving smaller parties and ethnic minorities a voice in Parliament.

Executive Power:
Pre-1978 parliamentary democracy offered more legislative oversight compared to the post-1978 presidential system, which was often criticised for excessive concentration of power.

Electoral Integrity:
Elections in both periods were generally well-conducted, although post-1977 elections sometimes faced allegations of misuse of state resources and media.

Civil Liberties:
The post-independence period (1948–1977) enjoyed greater civil liberties until the eruption of civil conflict in the 1980s. The post-1978 period, particularly during the civil war (1983–2009), saw militarisation, media suppression, and emergency rule.

While Sri Lanka’s PR system after 1978 is more representative in theory, the pre-1978 parliamentary era arguably had stronger institutional democracy with more robust checks on power. However, both periods had significant flaws. The later years (especially post-2015) show a renewed democratic commitment through reforms and increased judicial activism.

Thus, Sri Lanka in the post-2020 period—if current reforms are sustained—could emerge as the most democratic phase, combining representative fairness with institutional accountability. Yet, this remains contingent on political will and civic engagement.

Countries That Held Their First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century and Their Electoral Systems

The 20th century marked a transformative period in global political history, witnessing the collapse of empires, the birth of new nations, and the rapid spread of democratic ideals. Many countries held their first democratic elections during this time, though the definition of "democratic" varied—ranging from universal suffrage and competitive parties to representative systems. This article provides a snapshot of key countries that ventured into democratic elections in the 20th century, and the systems they adopted.

India (1951–52)

System Used: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: Following independence from Britain in 1947, India conducted its first general elections in 1951–52 under the newly adopted Constitution of 1950. The FPTP system was chosen, modelled on Westminster traditions, and continues to be used for Lok Sabha elections.

Germany (1919)

System Used: Proportional Representation (PR)

Context: After the fall of the German Empire post-WWI, the Weimar Republic was established. The 1919 election was Germany’s first under a broadly democratic system with women’s suffrage. PR was used to reflect political diversity—though its fragmentation later contributed to instability.

Japan (1928)

System Used: Limited FPTP under a restricted multi-member district system

Context: While elections existed earlier under the Meiji Constitution, 1928 was the first election based on universal male suffrage. Though not yet fully democratic (women were excluded until after WWII), it marked a step toward a more representative model.

Sri Lanka (1931)

System Used: FPTP

Context: Then known as Ceylon, Sri Lanka held its first democratic elections to the State Council under the Donoughmore Constitution. It was notable for introducing universal adult franchise, one of the earliest in Asia, ahead of even many European nations.

South Africa (1994)

System Used: Proportional Representation

Context: After decades of apartheid rule, South Africa’s first universal suffrage election in 1994 marked a seismic shift. The PR system was chosen to ensure inclusive representation in a deeply divided society.

Indonesia (1955)

System Used: Proportional Representation

Context: Following independence in 1945, Indonesia’s first national election took place in 1955 to elect members of the Constitutional Assembly. A PR system was selected to reflect the country’s pluralistic society, though democracy was short-lived due to authoritarian turns.

Ghana (1951)

System Used: FPTP

Context: Ghana (then the Gold Coast) held its first elections under British colonial rule. Though not fully independent until 1957, this marked the beginning of electoral politics, with Kwame Nkrumah’s CPP winning by a landslide.

Israel (1949)

System Used: Proportional Representation

Context: The newly founded state of Israel held its first Knesset elections in 1949 under a pure PR system, aiming to accommodate the diverse mix of ethnicities and political ideologies.

Pakistan (1970)

System Used: FPTP

Context: Although created in 1947, Pakistan’s first general election based on one-person, one-vote was not held until 1970. The election revealed deep regional divisions and led to the secession of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

 Nigeria (1959)

System Used: FPTP

Context: Nigeria’s pre-independence election in 1959 laid the foundation for democratic governance. The Westminster-style FPTP system was introduced under British supervision, though ethnic tensions soon disrupted stability.

Democracy’s Varied Beginnings

While many of these countries adopted First-Past-The-Post or Proportional Representation, others used hybrid or evolving systems influenced by colonial legacies, political cleavages, or ideological movements. What united them was the aspiration—however fragile—for inclusive representation and political legitimacy.

The 20th century was not just about the expansion of electoral democracy but also about experimentation and adaptation. Many of these "first elections" were only partially democratic—limited by gender, race, or elite control—but they sowed the seeds for future democratic evolution. Today, these early systems continue to influence the structure, stability, and fairness of electoral systems around the world.

A Timeline of Major Elections and Political Turning Points in Sri Lanka (1900–2025)

Sri Lanka’s electoral journey over the last century is a tapestry woven with the threads of colonial legacies, constitutional change, civil conflict, and democratic resilience. This timeline outlines the most significant elections and political events from 1900 to 2025 that have shaped the island nation’s electoral and democratic development.

1900–1931: Colonial Beginnings and Limited Franchise

1910 – McCallum Reforms: Introduced the first partially elected Legislative Council under British colonial rule, with an extremely limited franchise.

1920 & 1924 – Expanded Legislative Council Elections: Incremental increases in elected members, still limited to elite, English-educated males.

1931 – First State Council Election (Donoughmore Constitution): Marked a watershed moment with the introduction of universal adult suffrage (for citizens over 21), making Ceylon the first non-Western country to adopt this reform.

1947–1948: Transition to Independence

1947 – First Parliamentary General Election: Held under the Soulbury Constitution, using a first-past-the-post system. The United National Party (UNP) formed the government.

1948 – Independence: Ceylon became an independent dominion within the British Commonwealth.

1956–1970: Nationalism and Political Realignment

1956 – General Election Victory of the SLFP: S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike’s Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) won a landslide on a nationalist platform, introducing the Sinhala Only Act, triggering ethnic tensions.

1965 – UNP Regains Power: Under Dudley Senanayake, marking a return to pro-Western economic and political policies.

1970 – SLFP-LSSP-CP Coalition Victory: Led by Sirimavo Bandaranaike, who became the world’s first female Prime Minister for a second term. Initiated socialist reforms and moved toward a republican constitution.

1972–1978: New Republic and Systemic Overhaul

1972 – First Republican Constitution: Ceylon officially renamed Sri Lanka, severing last colonial ties. Introduced a unicameral legislature and a ceremonial President.

1977 – UNP Landslide Victory: J.R. Jayewardene led the UNP to a historic win, initiating liberalisation policies and setting the stage for major constitutional reform.

1978 – Second Republican Constitution: Created a powerful Executive Presidency and introduced Proportional Representation (PR), replacing the FPTP system.

1983–2009: Civil War and Electoral Challenges

1983 – Black July Riots and Civil Conflict: Anti-Tamil violence followed the ambush of Sri Lankan soldiers by the LTTE, leading to a 26-year-long civil war that affected elections and voter turnout in the north and east.

1988 – First Presidential Election under PR: Ranasinghe Premadasa (UNP) elected President amidst ethnic tensions and JVP insurrection.

1994 – Chandrika Kumaratunga Wins Presidency: SLFP-led People’s Alliance came to power; hope for peace talks with the LTTE initiated but later failed.

2005–2015: End of War and Constitutional Change

2005 – Mahinda Rajapaksa Elected President: Adopted a hardline stance against LTTE; civil war escalated.

2009 – Civil War Ends: Rajapaksa government declared victory over the LTTE, sparking post-war debates on reconciliation and democracy.

2010 – Rajapaksa Re-elected, 18th Amendment Passed: Removed presidential term limits and weakened independent commissions.

2015 – Maithripala Sirisena Wins Presidency: Backed by a UNP-led coalition. 19th Amendment reintroduced independent commissions and reduced presidential powers.

2020–2025: Crises and Reawakening

2020 – Parliamentary Election: SLPP (Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna), led by Mahinda and Gotabaya Rajapaksa, won a supermajority. 20th Amendment reversed many reforms of 2015, strengthening the presidency again.

2022 – Mass Protests and Rajapaksa Resignation: Amidst a deep economic crisis, public anger forced Gotabaya Rajapaksa to resign. Ranil Wickremesinghe became acting and then elected President by Parliament.

2023 – Local Government Elections Postponed: Due to financial and logistical constraints, raising concerns about democratic backsliding.

2025 – Anticipated General Election: Expected to be a pivotal contest determining the future of electoral reform, governance, and post-crisis recovery.

The electoral history of Sri Lanka is deeply intertwined with its national struggles and transformations—from colonial governance to universal suffrage, from civil conflict to constitutional experimentation. Each election brought with it a redefinition of power, identity, and democratic legitimacy. As Sri Lanka approaches the centenary of its first universal suffrage election, the choices of 2025 may well mark another defining moment in its political evolution.

Major Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Sri Lanka (1900–2025)

Sri Lanka’s democratic landscape has been shaped not only by internal political developments but also by key global electoral events and movements. These international currents influenced constitutional reforms, electoral practices, and political culture on the island. Below is a list of major global electoral events, revolutions, coups, and reforms that left a marked impact on Sri Lanka’s democracy between 1900 and 2025.

The Spread of Universal Suffrage Movements (Early 20th Century)

Context: During the early 1900s, a wave of global advocacy for universal suffrage, including women’s voting rights, swept through many British colonies and Western democracies.

Impact on Sri Lanka: The Donoughmore Commission (1927–1931), influenced by these global democratic currents, recommended the introduction of universal adult suffrage in Ceylon, which was implemented in 1931. This made Sri Lanka one of the earliest Asian countries to grant voting rights to all adults regardless of gender or property ownership.

Decolonisation and the End of Empire (Post-World War II)

Context: The global wave of decolonisation after World War II transformed many British colonies into independent nations with democratic constitutions.

Impact on Sri Lanka: In 1948, Ceylon gained independence, adopting the Westminster parliamentary system, reflecting British democratic traditions. This transition established Sri Lanka as a sovereign democratic state with regular multi-party elections.

The Global Rise of Executive Presidencies (1960s–1980s)

Context: Many post-colonial states, influenced by various models worldwide, adopted the executive presidency to strengthen political leadership.

Impact on Sri Lanka: In 1978, Sri Lanka introduced an executive presidential system under the new Constitution. While intended to improve governance, this shift concentrated power in the presidency and diminished parliamentary authority, a pattern seen in several countries during this era.

Global Cold War Politics and Ethno-nationalist Movements (1950s–1990s)

Context: The Cold War era witnessed ideological conflicts influencing internal politics globally, including ethnic and separatist movements.

Impact on Sri Lanka: The ethnic tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil minority intensified, partly shaped by broader international politics. This culminated in the civil war beginning in 1983, severely undermining democratic norms and electoral processes, especially in the North and East.

The Wave of Democratic Transitions (1989–2000s)

Context: The “Third Wave” of democracy swept through many parts of Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe, characterised by the fall of authoritarian regimes and establishment of democratic governance.

Impact on Sri Lanka: While Sri Lanka maintained elections, its democracy was classified as “flawed” due to conflict and governance issues. However, the post-war period saw democratic openings, including the 1994 election which ended 17 years of UNP rule, reflecting the influence of global democratic trends.

The Arab Spring and Global Calls for Democratic Reform (2010s)

Context: The Arab Spring inspired worldwide demands for transparency, accountability, and constitutional reform.

Impact on Sri Lanka: Inspired in part by these global movements, the 2015 presidential election brought reformist candidate Maithripala Sirisena to power. His government implemented the 19th Amendment, which curtailed presidential powers, echoing global trends toward democratic deepening.

Global Backsliding and Rise of Authoritarianism (Late 2010s–2020s)

Context: The late 2010s saw a resurgence of authoritarian tendencies in various democracies worldwide, challenging liberal democratic norms.

Impact on Sri Lanka: The 20th Amendment (2020) reversed earlier reforms by restoring sweeping executive powers to the presidency. This backsliding reflected a broader global pattern of weakening democratic checks and balances.

International Pro-Democracy Advocacy and Civil Society Influence (Ongoing)

Context: Global civil society movements, NGOs, and international institutions continue to advocate for free and fair elections and human rights.

Impact on Sri Lanka: These forces have played a critical role in monitoring elections, advocating for electoral reforms, and supporting democratic resilience, especially during political crises such as the 2022 economic protests and calls for constitutional reform.

While Sri Lanka’s democratic evolution is primarily shaped by domestic forces, these major global electoral and political events have significantly influenced its constitutional structures, electoral integrity, and democratic culture. Understanding these global linkages is essential to appreciating the complex trajectory of Sri Lanka’s democracy from 1900 to 2025.

CSV-style Table: General Elections in Sri Lanka (1900–2025)

A Century of Electoral Turning Points in Sri Lanka (1900–2025)

By electionanalyst.com | British English Style

Sri Lanka’s electoral journey from colonial dominion to a full-fledged, if oft-contested, parliamentary democracy is one marked by profound turning points. From the experimental reforms under the Donoughmore Constitution in 1931 to the complex realities of 21st-century governance, elections have both reflected and reshaped the island’s political and social fabric.

The Birth of the Franchise: 1931–1947

Sri Lanka, then Ceylon, was a trailblazer in South Asia when it introduced universal adult suffrage in 1931 under British colonial rule—ahead of even India. However, this reform came with limited legislative power. The real democratic transition began with the first general election of 1947, conducted under the Soulbury Constitution. The United National Party (UNP) emerged as the ruling force, steering the nation through independence in 1948.

Ethnic Identity and Language Politics: 1956–1977

The 1956 election was a watershed moment. The Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), under S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, championed Sinhala nationalism and introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, which alienated the Tamil minority and laid the groundwork for ethnic tensions. Subsequent elections were battles over language policy, economic ideology, and social reform, with alternating UNP and SLFP governments. The 1970 victory of the United Front brought sweeping socialist reforms and the first republican constitution in 1972.

Conflict and Crisis: 1983–2009

The 1980s and 1990s saw democracy overshadowed by the brutal civil war with the LTTE and severe repression of dissent, especially under UNP governments. Voter turnout dropped in parts of the country due to war and intimidation. Yet even amidst conflict, the electoral cycle remained largely uninterrupted, a testament to Sri Lanka’s institutional endurance.

The 2005–2010 period marked the endgame of the civil war, culminating in Mahinda Rajapaksa’s UPFA securing power on a wave of Sinhala-majoritarian sentiment and a promise of security.

Post-war Politics and Populism: 2010–2025

Post-2010 elections focused on reconstruction, reconciliation, and increasingly, governance and corruption. The 2015 election saw a surprise victory for a UNP-led coalition that promised reform, but internal conflicts hindered progress. The 2020 election, held amid the COVID-19 pandemic, swept the SLPP (Rajapaksa family’s party) to power.

Heading into 2025, Sri Lanka faces one of its most existential crises—a severe economic meltdown, soaring inflation, and debt dependency on the IMF. Voters are disillusioned with dynastic rule and are demanding a new form of governance. The forthcoming election may well be a reckoning—either reinforcing democratic accountability or descending further into populist volatility.

Sri Lanka’s electoral history is a complex interplay of ethnicity, economics, ideology, and institutional change. Despite significant challenges—civil war, economic collapse, authoritarian drift—the country has retained the electoral process as its central political mechanism. Whether 2025 will mark a democratic renewal or a democratic retreat remains the defining question.

Global Electoral Trends by Decade: A Sri Lankan Perspective (1900–2025)

Sri Lanka’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 offers a fascinating lens through which to view broader global electoral trends. Across these decades, shifts in democratisation, electoral innovations, and authoritarian setbacks reflect not only the island’s unique political journey but also parallel developments worldwide.

1900s–1910s: Colonial Electoral Beginnings and Limited Franchise

During the early 20th century, Sri Lanka—then Ceylon—was under British colonial rule. The introduction of limited electoral participation mirrored other colonies, with restricted voting rights based on property and education qualifications. Globally, electoral reforms began slowly, with universal suffrage still decades away in most regions.

1920s–1930s: Moves Toward Self-Governance and Expanded Franchise

Sri Lanka saw the gradual expansion of voting rights, culminating in the Donoughmore Constitution of 1931 which introduced universal adult franchise, one of the earliest in Asia. This paralleled global trends of post-World War I democratisation, especially in Europe and parts of Asia, where many countries extended suffrage and experimented with new electoral systems.

1940s: Independence and Democratic Foundations

Following independence in 1948, Sri Lanka established a parliamentary democracy, reflecting the global wave of decolonisation and democratic institution building after World War II. Many newly independent nations embraced electoral democracy as a foundation, although challenges persisted.

1950s–1960s: Consolidation and Electoral Innovations

Sri Lanka consolidated its democratic framework while witnessing ethnic tensions begin to shape electoral politics. Globally, the post-war decades saw innovations such as proportional representation, secret ballots, and electoral commissions designed to ensure fairness. Sri Lanka’s first-past-the-post system remained, but universal suffrage was firmly entrenched.

1970s: Authoritarian Rollbacks and Political Instability

The 1970s brought challenges globally, with many countries facing coups, authoritarian backsliding, or electoral manipulation. Sri Lanka experienced constitutional changes creating an executive presidency and state control over key institutions. Electoral integrity faced strain amid growing ethnic conflict and political unrest.

1980s: Conflict, Electoral Disruptions, and Partial Authoritarianism

Marked by ethnic insurgency and political violence, Sri Lanka’s elections were frequently disrupted. This mirrored a global pattern where Cold War tensions and internal conflicts led to compromised electoral processes, often amid state crackdowns or insurgencies, notably in parts of Africa, Latin America, and Asia.

1990s: Democratization Resurgence and Electoral Reforms

Following the Cold War, Sri Lanka saw attempts to stabilise democracy through electoral reforms and peace talks. Globally, this decade witnessed a surge in democratisation (“the third wave”), introduction of new technologies for voter registration, and international election monitoring to ensure transparency.

2000s: Technology and Electoral Challenges

Sri Lanka’s post-civil war elections reflected increased use of technology, though political violence and irregularities persisted. Worldwide, electronic voting and biometric registration became common, but concerns about misinformation and electoral interference also rose.

2010s: Democratic Backsliding and Polarisation

Sri Lanka grappled with political polarisation and contested elections, echoing a global trend of democratic erosion and rise of populist leaders. Electoral commissions faced pressure, and media freedom was challenged, trends seen in many established democracies as well as developing states.

2020s: Pandemic-Era Adaptations and Democratic Uncertainty

The COVID-19 pandemic forced election delays and adoption of health protocols globally, including in Sri Lanka. While many states innovated with mail-in ballots or digital engagement, fears of authoritarian rollbacks and electoral manipulation remained, intensified by social unrest and economic crises.

Sri Lanka’s electoral journey from colonial times to the modern day encapsulates the global ebb and flow of democratic ideals, technological advancements, and political challenges. Its experience reflects wider trends of gradual enfranchisement, innovation tempered by conflict, and the ongoing struggle to safeguard electoral integrity in a changing world.

Example :

Write like a political analyst explaining why the 2006 election in Sri Lanka was controversial

The 2006 parliamentary election in Sri Lanka unfolded against a backdrop of intense conflict and political tension, casting a shadow over its legitimacy and sparking widespread controversy. Analysts have often highlighted that the election occurred in the midst of a brutal civil war between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), which severely undermined the democratic process. The LTTE, controlling significant parts of the North and East, enforced a boycott that effectively disenfranchised large segments of the Tamil population. This absence distorted voter representation and skewed the results in favour of the ruling United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA).

Moreover, allegations of intimidation, vote-rigging, and misuse of state resources were rife, intensifying suspicions about the fairness of the polls. The election campaign was marred by violence and political repression, creating an atmosphere where free political expression was compromised. Consequently, many critics argued that the 2006 election failed to reflect the true will of the Sri Lankan people, instead serving as a tool to consolidate power amidst a fractious national crisis. This period illustrated the challenges of conducting democratic elections during active internal conflict and underscored the fragility of Sri Lanka’s democratic institutions at the time.

Example :

Summarise the 1900 Eastern European elections in a journalistic tone

The 1900 elections across Eastern Europe were a complex reflection of the region’s turbulent political landscape at the dawn of the 20th century. Marked by a patchwork of monarchies, empires, and burgeoning nationalist movements, the electoral processes varied widely from one territory to another. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, for instance, elections were largely constrained by limited suffrage and ethnic tensions, with German-speaking elites often dominating the political sphere. Meanwhile, the Russian Empire maintained an autocratic grip, with the Duma elections offering only a semblance of parliamentary democracy amid heavy censorship and political repression.

In Poland, partitioned between empires, elections were heavily influenced by foreign powers, with Polish nationalists striving for representation and autonomy. Across the Balkans, nascent nation-states sought to establish electoral systems, often marked by irregularities and power struggles among competing factions. These elections, while imperfect, were pivotal in laying the groundwork for the sweeping political transformations that would engulf the region in the years leading up to World War I. Journalists at the time described the 1900 elections as both a symbol of emerging democratic aspirations and a stark reminder of the entrenched authoritarianism that still gripped much of Eastern Europe.

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