The Evolution of Iran’s Electoral System: 1900 to 2025-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

Iran’s electoral system has undergone significant changes from the early 20th century to the present day, reflecting the country’s turbulent political history—from monarchy through constitutional revolution, the Pahlavi dynasty, the Islamic Revolution, to the contemporary Islamic Republic. This article explains the types of voting and representation systems used in Iran from 1900 to 2025, highlighting key shifts in electoral structure.

???????? Early 20th Century: Constitutional Revolution and First Elections (1906–1925)

The Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906 established the country’s first parliament, the Majlis.

The electoral system was majoritarian, based largely on single-member districts with limited suffrage restricted by property and literacy qualifications.

Voting was plurality-based (First-Past-the-Post, FPTP) in most constituencies, meaning the candidate with the most votes won.

Representation was uneven and heavily influenced by local elites and tribal leaders; political parties were virtually nonexistent.

???????? Pahlavi Era: Centralisation and Controlled Elections (1925–1979)

Under Reza Shah (1925–1941) and later Mohammad Reza Shah, Iran’s electoral process remained majoritarian and non-proportional.

Elections to the Majlis were held mostly via plurality systems in single-member or multi-member districts, but the process was often marred by manipulation and royal influence.

Political parties had little real power; elections served more to legitimize royal authority than to reflect popular will.

Women were granted voting rights only in 1963, after which elections nominally became more inclusive, but the system remained non-proportional and authoritarian.

???????? Post-Islamic Revolution: The Islamic Republic’s Electoral System (1979–Present)

Majlis (Parliament) Elections

The Majlis consists of 290 seats elected every four years.

Elections use a two-round majority system:

Candidates must secure at least 25% of votes in the first round to win outright.

If no candidate reaches this threshold, a runoff is held between the top candidates.

The system is essentially majoritarian rather than proportional.

Multi-member districts exist in larger cities, where multiple candidates are elected via majoritarian block voting.

All candidates are vetted by the Guardian Council, which disqualifies many, limiting competition.

 Assembly of Experts

Elected every eight years, the Assembly oversees the Supreme Leader.

Uses a similar majoritarian system in provincial constituencies.

Presidential Elections

Direct, majoritarian two-round system.

Candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council.

If no candidate wins over 50% in the first round, a runoff between the top two is held.

.Local Councils

Elections to city and village councils use plurality systems.

Voter participation is voluntary but competitive within the regime's limits.

???????? Summary: Proportional or Majoritarian?

Throughout its modern history, Iran’s electoral system has predominantly been majoritarian, relying on plurality or two-round systems.

Proportional representation has never been a feature of Iranian elections.

The system is heavily controlled by religious and political institutions, especially the Guardian Council, which restricts candidate eligibility, thus limiting genuine electoral competition.

From the early constitutional attempts in 1906 to the complex controlled elections of today, Iran’s electoral system has consistently favoured majoritarian voting methods rather than proportional representation. While elections are regularly held for multiple bodies, significant vetting and political control mean that Iran’s electoral democracy remains constrained, reflecting the broader balance between republican and theocratic power.

When Did Iran Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

Iran’s political history is marked by a complex interplay between monarchy, revolution, and theocratic rule, which has profoundly shaped its electoral system. Understanding when Iran transitioned to a multi-party or democratic electoral system requires examining key moments across the 20th century and beyond.

Pre-Revolutionary Era: Limited Electoral Pluralism

In the early 20th century, Iran was ruled by the Qajar dynasty until the Pahlavi monarchy took power in 1925. During the Pahlavi era, particularly under Reza Shah (1925–1941) and later his son Mohammad Reza Shah, Iran had a parliament (Majlis) with elected members. However, elections were often manipulated, with political opposition suppressed and parties closely monitored or controlled by the monarchy.

While multiple parties nominally existed, genuine political competition was limited. The electoral process did not meet democratic standards, and the Shah wielded significant influence over parliament and the electoral framework.

The 1950s: A Brief Opening

The early 1950s saw a surge in political activity, especially during Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh’s tenure (1951–1953), who nationalised the oil industry and sought to reduce royal power. This period was marked by increased political plurality and more competitive elections. However, the 1953 CIA-backed coup d’état ended this experiment with democracy, reinstating monarchical dominance and curtailing political freedoms.

Post-1979 Islamic Revolution: Theocratic Electoral System

The most significant political transformation came with the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy and established the Islamic Republic under Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini. This new system combined elements of theocracy and republicanism.

While Iran introduced elections for the presidency, parliament (Majlis), and local councils, the political landscape became dominated by Islamic principles. The Guardian Council, a powerful unelected body, vets candidates for elected office, severely restricting political competition and the emergence of genuine opposition parties.

Multi-Party System? — A Qualified Reality

Iran formally allows multiple political parties and factions. Reformist, moderate, and conservative parties compete in elections. However, the vetting process, restrictions on political expression, and the overarching authority of unelected religious bodies limit the democratic nature of elections.

Elections are competitive within the parameters set by the ruling establishment, but opposition groups outside the approved spectrum face disqualification or repression.

A Hybrid Electoral System

Iran has never transitioned to a fully democratic multi-party electoral system in the Western sense. Instead, since 1979, it operates a hybrid electoral system—combining elements of republican elections with strong theocratic control and candidate vetting.

In summary:

Pre-1979: Limited multi-party activity under monarchical authoritarianism.

1951–1953: Brief democratic opening under Mossadegh.

Post-1979: Hybrid system with elections, but under strict religious oversight limiting full democratic pluralism.

Iran’s electoral system thus represents a unique model blending theocratic supervision with electoral competition among vetted parties rather than a broad democratic multi-party system.

National Election Results & Political Outcomes in Iran (1900–2025)

Iran’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 is complex, shaped by monarchic rule, revolutions, authoritarian regimes, and gradual shifts towards controlled electoral participation. Unlike many Western democracies, Iran’s elections have often taken place within constrained political frameworks, with varying degrees of competition and transparency. Below is an overview of key national election results, highlighting party dynamics, seat distributions, and voter turnout where data is available.

Early 20th Century and Constitutional Revolution (1906–1925)

The 1906 Constitutional Revolution established the Majles (Parliament) and introduced Iran’s first national elections.

Political parties were loosely organised, with local elites dominating seats.

Data on voter turnout and exact seat distributions are scarce, but early parliaments had around 156 seats.

Pahlavi Era Elections (1925–1979)

Under Reza Shah (1925–1941) and Mohammad Reza Shah (1941–1979), elections were largely controlled and manipulated.

Political parties like the National Front, Tudeh Party (Communists), and later the Resurgence Party (Rastakhiz) existed but faced repression.

1950s–1970s Parliament Composition:

The Shah’s loyalist parties and independents dominated. Opposition parties were often banned or co-opted.

For example, the 1956 Majles election saw pro-Shah candidates winning a majority amid accusations of rigging.

Voter turnout varied but was generally low due to distrust and lack of genuine choice.

1977 General Election (Example)

The 1977 parliamentary elections were the last under the Shah before the 1979 revolution.

Total Seats: 285

Voter Turnout: Official figures claimed approximately 72%, though opposition alleged coercion and vote manipulation.

Outcome: Virtually no genuine opposition was allowed; elections served to legitimise authoritarian rule.

Post-Revolution and Islamic Republic Elections (1979–Present)

After the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the political system transformed dramatically.

The Majles was re-established with 270 seats. Elections are overseen by the Guardian Council, which vets candidates for ideological conformity.

Recent Parliamentary Elections Highlights

Turnout figures are approximate, as official data vary and independent verification is limited.

Political Outcomes

Elections in Iran often reflect a tug-of-war between reformist/moderate factions seeking gradual change and hardline conservatives defending theocratic principles.

Despite regular elections, the Guardian Council's candidate vetting limits genuine competition.

Voter turnout has fluctuated considerably, influenced by political disenchantment, candidate disqualifications, and public sentiment.

Iran’s national elections from 1900 to 2025 reveal a trajectory from early constitutional experiments through authoritarian monarchy to a complex hybrid system combining theocratic oversight with electoral processes. While elections remain a feature of Iran’s political life, their character and outcomes are heavily shaped by institutional constraints and political controls.

Major Political Parties and Leaders in Iran’s Elections (1900–2025): An Analytical Overview

Iran’s political landscape over the past 125 years has been shaped by a complex interplay of monarchic authority, religious influence, revolutionary upheaval, and evolving electoral processes. While formal elections were limited in early periods, the country’s major parties and political figures played pivotal roles in shaping Iran’s governance and democratic engagement up to 2025.

Early 20th Century: Constitutional Revolution and Emerging Parties

The first significant political mobilisation occurred during the 1905–1911 Constitutional Revolution, which established Iran’s first parliament (Majles). Early political factions were largely informal, but key groups included:

Moderates: Advocated constitutional monarchy with limited royal powers.

Radicals/Progressives: Called for broader democratic reforms and secular laws.

Clerical Conservatives: Defended religious authority and Sharia influence.

Leaders such as Sattar Khan emerged as revolutionary heroes. However, elections during this period were limited, with political power still dominated by the Qajar monarchy.

Pahlavi Era (1925–1979): Authoritarian Monarchy and Controlled Elections

Reza Shah’s rise in 1925 ushered in the Pahlavi dynasty, marked by centralisation and authoritarian rule. Political parties were either banned or heavily controlled.

Party of Nationalists (Hezb-e Melli) and Tudeh Party (communist) emerged as opposition but faced repression.

The Iran Novin Party (1963–1975) acted as the ruling party under Mohammad Reza Shah, serving as an instrument for modernisation policies.

Elections under the Pahlavis were largely ceremonial, with real power concentrated in the Shah’s hands.

Post-Revolution Period (1979–Present): The Islamic Republic and Factional Politics

Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran became an Islamic Republic under Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini. The political system combined elected institutions with religious oversight by the Guardian Council.

Major Political Factions:

Principlists (Conservatives): Support theocratic governance and strict Islamic law. Notable leaders include Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (President, 2005–2013).

Reformists: Seek political liberalisation and social reforms within the Islamic Republic framework. Key figures include Mohammad Khatami (President, 1997–2005).

Moderates/Centrists: Promote pragmatic policies and improved relations with the West. A prominent leader is Hassan Rouhani (President, 2013–2021).

Elections are held regularly for the Presidency, Parliament (Majles), and Assembly of Experts. However, candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council, limiting the electoral field.

Key Electoral Outcomes

1997 Presidential Election: Mohammad Khatami’s landslide victory marked a reformist surge and hope for democratic opening.

2009 Presidential Election: Controversial re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sparked widespread protests (“Green Movement”) over alleged fraud.

2013 and 2017 Elections: Hassan Rouhani’s victories reflected a public desire for moderation and international engagement, especially around the nuclear deal.

2020s and Beyond

The 2021 Presidential Election saw the rise of hardliner Ebrahim Raisi, reflecting a conservative consolidation amid political disillusionment and economic challenges. Restrictions on candidate eligibility and political expression have increasingly raised concerns about democratic backsliding.

Iran’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 has been characterised by periods of both limited electoral participation and intense political contestation. While elections occur regularly, the overarching influence of religious institutions and vetting bodies means outcomes often reflect controlled competition rather than fully open democracy.

For Iran, elections remain a complex theatre where ideological factions contest power within constitutional constraints shaped by the Islamic Republic’s unique political system.

Sources:

Encyclopaedia Iranica

Freedom House Reports

Electoral data from Iranian Ministry of Interior

Academic analyses on Iranian political history

Electoral Violence and Irregularities in Iran (1900–2025)

Iran’s electoral history over the past century has been marked by significant turbulence, shaped by dramatic political transformations—from monarchy to Islamic Republic—and recurrent tensions surrounding electoral integrity. Between 1900 and 2025, elections in Iran have frequently been accompanied by allegations of irregularities, political violence, boycotts, and state interventions that reflect the country’s complex political landscape.

Reported Electoral Irregularities and Violence

Early 20th Century: Constitutional Revolution and Parliamentary Elections

The Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) introduced Iran’s first parliamentary elections, yet these were often marred by limited suffrage, elite manipulation, and interference by both domestic factions and foreign powers. Electoral violence was sporadic but reflected the intense contest between reformists and monarchist loyalists.

1953 Parliamentary Elections

Following the 1953 CIA-backed coup that ousted Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh, elections during the Shah’s regime were frequently criticised for manipulation. The 1953 election cycle especially saw rigging, voter intimidation, and the suppression of opposition parties loyal to Mossadegh’s National Front, deepening political repression.

1979 Islamic Revolution and Post-Revolution Elections

After the 1979 Revolution, Iran’s new Islamic government introduced elections for the Assembly of Experts and later presidential and parliamentary votes. However, the state exerted tight control over candidate vetting through bodies such as the Guardian Council, which disqualified many reformist or secular candidates.

Violence and Repression:
During the 1980s and 1990s, opposition groups, including secular and leftist factions, faced harassment, arrests, and sometimes violent crackdowns during election periods. In particular, the 1997 presidential election, which saw reformist Mohammad Khatami’s victory, triggered street protests by conservatives unhappy with the results.

2009 Presidential Election
Perhaps the most significant episode of electoral violence and controversy occurred during the 2009 presidential election. Allegations of widespread fraud favouring incumbent Mahmoud Ahmadinejad led to the Green Movement protests, the largest in decades. Security forces responded with a harsh crackdown — arrests, beatings, and deaths were reported. The government denied wrongdoing, but international observers and many Iranians saw the election as fundamentally flawed.

2017 and 2021 Elections

These elections continued to be overshadowed by the exclusion of key reformist candidates and reports of limited transparency. Protests erupted in some areas, though not on the scale of 2009, with government forces often suppressing dissent quickly.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections

Iran’s electoral history is deeply intertwined with its political upheavals and authoritarian tendencies. While elections have been a mechanism for political legitimacy, their credibility has often been undermined by state control, exclusionary candidate vetting, and violent suppression of opposition. The 2009 election stands out as a watershed moment revealing the profound disconnect between the government and large sections of the population. Looking ahead, Iran’s electoral process continues to face challenges that will shape its political stability and reform prospects.

Iran’s Democracy Index and Electoral Evolution (1900–2025): Reforms, Setbacks, and Political Reality

Iran’s journey through the past century in terms of electoral democracy has been complex and often turbulent. From early constitutional experiments in the early 20th century, through the upheavals of revolution, monarchy, and theocratic rule, Iran’s democratic credentials have fluctuated markedly. This article examines Iran’s ranking in electoral democracy from 1900 to 2025, highlighting key reforms and episodes of democratic backsliding.

Early 20th Century: The Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)

Iran’s first significant step towards democracy was the Constitutional Revolution, culminating in the establishment of the Majles (parliament) in 1906. This period marked the birth of Iran’s constitutional monarchy with a nascent parliamentary system and elections.

Democracy Index (early 1900s): Limited but pioneering in the region; early electoral participation was constrained by social hierarchies and political elites.

Reform: The constitution introduced the rule of law, separation of powers, and electoral processes for the Majles.

Limitations: The monarchy and foreign powers (notably Russia and Britain) curtailed full democratic development. Elections were often manipulated and limited to male landowners.

Pahlavi Era: Authoritarian Centralisation (1925–1979)

The rise of the Pahlavi dynasty under Reza Shah (1925–1941) and later Mohammad Reza Shah (1941–1979) saw significant centralisation of power and limited genuine electoral democracy.

Democracy Index: Declined considerably during this period.

Elections: While parliamentary elections were held, they were largely controlled, with the Shah exerting influence to suppress opposition.

Reform and Backsliding: The 1953 CIA-backed coup against Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh marked a severe democratic setback, reinforcing authoritarian rule. Although the Shah introduced a one-party system in the 1970s (Rastakhiz Party), democratic competition was effectively eliminated.

Post-1979 Islamic Revolution: Theocratic Electoral System

The 1979 Revolution radically transformed Iran’s political system into an Islamic Republic with a unique fusion of theocratic and republican elements.

Democracy Index: Mixed and controversial. While elections are held regularly for the Majles, President, and Assembly of Experts, candidates are vetted by unelected bodies such as the Guardian Council.

Reforms: Institutionalised elections with some popular participation.

Backsliding: Extensive restrictions on candidates and political freedoms limit genuine democratic competition. Repression of dissent and control over media and civil society further constrain democracy.

Voter Turnout: Generally high, due to compulsory voting culture and political mobilisation, but legitimacy is questioned internationally.

21st Century: Fluctuating Electoral Openness and Challenges (2000–2025)

Iran’s electoral democracy has experienced cycles of reformist advances and conservative retrenchment.

2000s Reform Period: The presidency of Mohammad Khatami (1997–2005) introduced calls for political liberalisation and more open elections, though many candidates were still disqualified.

Backsliding: Post-2009, following the disputed presidential election and the “Green Movement” protests, authorities intensified control, disqualifying reformist candidates and suppressing opposition.

Recent Elections: The 2021 presidential election saw the lowest turnout in decades (~48%), reflecting public disillusionment.

Democracy Index Trends: Independent indexes such as The Economist Intelligence Unit consistently rate Iran as an authoritarian regime with limited electoral democracy and significant political repression.

A Complex Democracy Index Trajectory

Iran’s democratic journey from 1900 to 2025 reveals a pattern of early promise followed by extended authoritarian rule, a theocratic system with controlled electoral processes, and cycles of limited reform and pronounced backsliding. While elections continue to be held, the democratic substance is compromised by structural and institutional restrictions.

Iran’s democracy index remains low by global standards, characterised by limited political freedoms and constrained electoral choice. Any potential for reform depends heavily on internal political dynamics and pressures from a populace increasingly sceptical of the existing political framework.

Major Electoral Reforms in Iran from 1900 to 2025

Iran’s electoral history reflects the country’s complex political evolution, marked by constitutional revolutions, authoritarian regimes, and attempts at democratic reforms. From the early 20th century to the present day, Iran has witnessed a series of significant electoral reforms shaping its parliamentary and presidential systems.

Early 20th Century: Constitutional Revolution and Birth of Elections (1906–1925)

1906 Constitutional Revolution:
The most pivotal reform in Iran’s electoral history occurred during the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1907, which led to the establishment of the Majles (parliament) and the country’s first constitution in 1906. This introduced Iran’s first modern electoral system.

Electoral Law of 1906:

Established elections for the National Consultative Assembly (Majles).

Voting rights were limited primarily to male property owners, clergy, and the elite, excluding large parts of the population including women and peasants.

Elections were indirect in many provinces with local assemblies selecting deputies.

1909 Majles Elections:
Marked the first parliamentary elections based on the new constitution. Despite limitations, this set the precedent for representative governance.

Pahlavi Era Reforms (1925–1979)

Centralisation and Authoritarian Control:
With Reza Shah’s rise to power in 1925 and later Mohammad Reza Shah, electoral processes became tightly controlled, undermining democratic participation.

Limited Electoral Franchise:
While elections for the Majles continued, they were heavily influenced by the monarchy and security apparatus. Political parties were often banned or tightly monitored.

1949 Electoral Law Revision:
Slight expansion of suffrage and some liberalisation, allowing more political parties briefly during the early 1950s.

1951–1953 Elections and Crisis:
The nationalisation of oil under Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh saw parliamentary elections reflect popular will, but the 1953 coup reversed gains, and electoral manipulation increased.

1963 White Revolution:

Women were granted suffrage for the first time, a significant reform in the electoral law.

Elections became nominally more inclusive, though still under tight regime control.

Post-Revolutionary Electoral Reforms (1979–Present)

1979 Islamic Revolution and New Political Order:
The revolution fundamentally transformed Iran’s political and electoral system, establishing the Islamic Republic.

New Constitution (1979):

Created the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majles) and introduced the position of the Supreme Leader with ultimate authority.

Electoral system based on Islamic principles and vetting of candidates.

Guardian Council (Established 1980):

A 12-member body with the power to approve or disqualify electoral candidates based on ideological conformity and qualifications.

This council has profoundly shaped the democratic character of elections by restricting candidate eligibility.

Presidential Elections Introduced (1980):
Direct election of the president by popular vote, with a four-year term. Candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council.

Expansion of Electoral Franchise:

Universal suffrage extended to all Iranian citizens aged 18 and above (lowered from 20 in recent decades).

Women retained the right to vote and run for parliamentary seats.

Electoral Law Amendments:
Various reforms over the years have adjusted seat allocations, voter registration procedures, and election logistics.

Local Council Elections (1999):
Established local councils (Islamic City and Village Councils) through direct elections, marking an important decentralisation reform.

Recent Electoral Developments (2000–2025)

Reformist vs Conservative Dynamics:
Elections have become a battleground between reformist and conservative factions, with the Guardian Council continuing to vet candidates stringently.

2016 Electoral Law Reform:
Changes to campaign financing, electoral offences, and candidate eligibility criteria aimed to enhance transparency but critics cite ongoing restrictions.

Voting Age Lowered (2007):
The minimum voting age was lowered from 18 to 16 but later reversed to 18 due to practical concerns.

2021 Parliamentary Elections:
Characterised by the mass disqualification of reformist candidates, leading to a conservative-dominated Majles.

Technological and Procedural Improvements:
Introduction of biometric voter registration and efforts to modernise the electoral commission.

Continued Debate on Electoral Transparency:
International and domestic observers often critique the vetting process and candidate disqualifications as undemocratic, limiting electoral competitiveness.

Summary

Iran’s electoral reforms since 1900 reveal a trajectory from limited constitutional beginnings through authoritarian centralisation, followed by a revolutionary overhaul establishing a theocratic republic with controlled electoral participation. While reforms have expanded suffrage and introduced direct presidential elections, the pervasive role of the Guardian Council restricts genuine political competition. Electoral reforms continue to be a contested and evolving facet of Iran’s political landscape, balancing between controlled theocratic oversight and pressures for democratic inclusion.

Global Comparison: Electoral Systems of Iran from 1900 to 2025 — Which Was More Democratic?

Iran’s political and electoral history over the past century-plus is marked by dramatic shifts — from constitutional monarchy to authoritarian rule, revolution, and the establishment of the Islamic Republic. Comparing the country’s electoral systems from 1900 through to 2025 reveals striking contrasts in democratic features, inclusiveness, and political freedom.

Electoral System in Iran during the Early 20th Century (1900–1925)

At the start of the 20th century, Iran was under the rule of the Qajar dynasty. The constitutional revolution of 1905-1911 was a seminal event that introduced a parliamentary system for the first time. The 1906 Persian Constitution established the Majles (National Consultative Assembly), intended as a representative body elected by the people.

Electoral framework: The 1906 constitution set the foundations for elections based on male suffrage, though suffrage was limited and unevenly implemented. Voting rights were typically restricted to male property owners or taxpayers, excluding large segments of the population.

Level of democracy: While the constitution enshrined concepts of popular sovereignty and parliamentary democracy, in practice, elections were often influenced by local elites, tribal leaders, and the monarchy’s intervention. Political parties were embryonic or non-existent.

Challenges: The political environment was unstable, with frequent interference by foreign powers (notably Britain and Russia), corruption, and weak institutions limiting genuine democratic governance.

Thus, while Iran in the early 20th century showed important democratic aspirations and institutional innovations for the region, its electoral system was limited in inclusiveness and fairness by modern standards.

Electoral System under the Islamic Republic (1979–2025)

The 1979 Islamic Revolution replaced the monarchy with a theocratic republic governed by a complex blend of elected and unelected institutions, based on the principle of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist).

Key institutions: Iran has a directly elected President, Parliament (Majles), and Assembly of Experts. However, these elections are tightly regulated by powerful unelected bodies, most notably the Guardian Council, which vets all candidates for loyalty to the Islamic Republic’s ideological principles.

Candidate vetting: The Guardian Council disqualifies a significant proportion of candidates, limiting political pluralism and effectively excluding reformists or critics of the regime.

Voter participation: While voter turnout tends to be high in presidential and parliamentary elections, the lack of genuine choice undermines the democratic nature of these elections.

Political pluralism: Iran permits multiple parties, but they operate within strict ideological boundaries, and dissent is often suppressed.

Role of religious authorities: The Supreme Leader, an unelected figure with vast powers, overrides many electoral decisions and controls key state institutions.

Hence, the Islamic Republic’s electoral system combines elements of popular participation with authoritarian controls, resulting in a hybrid regime often characterised as an electoral authoritarian state.

Which Was More Democratic?

When comparing the two eras, neither Iran in the early 20th century nor the post-1979 Islamic Republic fully meets contemporary democratic standards. However, some nuanced distinctions emerge:

Early 20th Century Iran: Introduced constitutional monarchy and parliamentary elections for the first time, representing a foundational step toward democracy in the Middle East. However, suffrage was limited, political institutions weak, and elections prone to elite manipulation.

Islamic Republic Era: Holds regular elections with broad voter participation, but political competition is severely restricted by unelected bodies controlling candidate eligibility and fundamental freedoms. The system institutionalises theocratic authoritarianism alongside electoral processes.

From the standpoint of formal electoral inclusiveness and political pluralism, early 20th century Iran’s constitutional experiment arguably offered a marginally broader scope for genuine political competition — at least in theory. However, the Islamic Republic has established a more stable, institutionalised electoral framework, albeit heavily constrained and controlled.

Between 1900 and 2025, Iran’s electoral systems evolved from an embryonic constitutional monarchy with limited democratic features to a highly controlled, hybrid theocratic regime. While both systems fall short of modern democracy, the early constitutional period embodied nascent democratic ideals that were later subsumed under theocratic authoritarianism.

Iran today holds elections regularly, but the substantive quality of democracy is compromised by systematic restrictions on candidates, political freedoms, and the separation of powers. Therefore, in terms of electoral democracy, early 20th century Iran’s constitutional monarchy system was arguably more democratic in principle, though limited in practice, whereas the contemporary system is more authoritarian despite electoral trappings.

Which Countries Had Their First Democratic Election in the 20th Century – and Under What System?

The 20th century marked a dramatic shift in global governance, with many nations experiencing their first democratic elections amid the decline of empires, the rise of nation-states, and waves of decolonisation. While Western democracies had begun experimenting with parliamentary systems in the 19th century, it was in the 20th century that universal suffrage, multi-party competition, and representative voting systems began to spread worldwide.

This article explores the key countries that held their first democratic elections in the 20th century, highlighting the voting system used, the political context, and the degree of electoral freedom at the time.

Defining a "Democratic Election"

For the purposes of this overview, a “democratic election” refers to:

A national-level vote,

With universal or expanded adult suffrage,

Multi-party participation (or at least meaningful opposition),

And genuine contestation of power.

Timeline of First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century

???????? Australia – 1901 (Federal Parliament)

System: First-Past-The-Post (later Preferential Voting from 1918).

Context: Federation of the Australian colonies.

Notes: Among the first countries to allow women's suffrage (1902 federally).

???????? Finland – 1907 (Parliamentary)

System: Proportional Representation (PR).

Context: Then a Grand Duchy under Russia; declared independence in 1917.

Notes: First country to grant universal suffrage including women both to vote and to stand for election.

???????? Austria – 1919 (Post-WWI)

System: Proportional Representation.

Context: Collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Notes: Women voted for the first time.

???????? Germany – 1919 (Weimar Republic)

System: Proportional Representation.

Context: Fall of the German Empire after WWI.

Notes: Women’s suffrage introduced.

???????? Ireland – 1922 (Free State Elections)

System: Single Transferable Vote (STV) – a form of PR.

Context: After independence from Britain.

Notes: Highly proportional and still used today.

???????? Turkey – 1923 (Republic founded)

System: Majoritarian (Bloc voting system in early years).

Context: End of Ottoman Empire; rise of Kemalist regime.

Notes: Initially one-party system; multi-party democracy introduced in 1950.

???????? India – 1951–52 (First general elections)

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP).

Context: Post-independence from British rule (1947).

Notes: Largest democratic exercise at the time; universal adult suffrage from the outset.

???????? Japan – 1946 (Post-WWII)

System: Limited PR with multi-member constituencies.

Context: Under U.S. occupation, with democratic constitution introduced.

Notes: Women voted for the first time.

???????? Ghana – 1951 (Legislative Council)

System: Mixed (FPTP with appointed seats).

Context: British colony transitioning toward independence.

Notes: Kwame Nkrumah’s CPP won; independence granted in 1957.

???????? Indonesia – 1955 (Parliamentary & Constituent Assembly)

System: List-based Proportional Representation.

Context: Post-independence democracy.

Notes: One of Asia’s most democratic elections until 1999.

???????? Nigeria – 1959 (Pre-independence election)

System: First-Past-The-Post.

Context: Final election before independence in 1960.

Notes: Marked beginning of formal democratic institutions.

???????? Kenya – 1963 (Post-independence)

System: First-Past-The-Post.

Context: Decolonisation from British rule.

Notes: Jomo Kenyatta’s KANU party won majority.

???????? South Korea – 1948 (Founding Election)

System: Majoritarian (FPTP for legislature).

Context: Partitioned from North Korea.

Notes: Marked the creation of the Republic of Korea.

???????? Israel – 1949 (First Knesset elections)

System: Nationwide Proportional Representation.

Context: State founded in 1948.

Notes: One of the world’s purest PR systems.

Patterns & Observations

Proportional Representation became popular in post-imperial Europe (Austria, Germany, Finland) to accommodate fragmented societies.

First-Past-The-Post remained dominant in British Commonwealth countries (India, Nigeria, Kenya).

Women’s suffrage often coincided with first democratic elections, especially after WWI and WWII.

Decolonisation (1945–1975) triggered waves of democratic elections across Africa and Asia.

Many early democracies reverted to authoritarianism soon after first elections (e.g., Turkey, Ghana, Nigeria).

The 20th century ushered in the modern age of electoral democracy. From Finland’s pioneering universal vote in 1907 to the mass elections of India and Indonesia in the 1950s, dozens of nations held their first democratic elections under a variety of electoral systems. These early elections set the tone—whether stable or shaky—for their future political trajectories. While not all early democracies endured, the foundational act of voting helped shape the global norms we take for granted today.

 Major Elections in Iran from 1900 to 2025 with Key Political Events

Iran’s political history over the last century-plus has been marked by significant elections intertwined with dramatic upheavals and regime changes. This timeline highlights the major electoral milestones, alongside key political turning points, illustrating the country’s complex journey from monarchy to the Islamic Republic.

Early 20th Century: Constitutional Revolution and the Birth of Parliamentary Elections

1906 – Persian Constitutional Revolution & Establishment of the Majles

Following widespread demands for reform, the 1906 Constitution was promulgated, creating Iran’s first national parliament, the Majles.

The constitution introduced the idea of elected representation, though suffrage was limited primarily to property-owning men.

This marked Iran’s first experiment with a parliamentary electoral system.

1906–1925 – Qajar Monarchy and Electoral Instability

Multiple parliamentary elections were held during this period, but they were often disrupted by royal interference, foreign influence (notably British and Russian), and internal factionalism.

Elections were irregular and limited in democratic quality, with many seats dominated by elites or tribal leaders.

Mid 20th Century: Pahlavi Dynasty and Electoral Authoritarianism

1925 – Rise of Reza Shah and End of Qajar Dynasty

Reza Shah established the Pahlavi dynasty, centralising power and weakening parliamentary authority.

Elections continued but were tightly controlled; political parties were banned or heavily restricted.

1941 – Anglo-Soviet Invasion & Mohammad Reza Shah’s Accession

Following Reza Shah’s forced abdication during World War II, his son Mohammad Reza Shah took power.

The early post-war years saw a brief political opening, allowing multiple parties to participate in elections.

1951 – Election of Mohammad Mossadegh and Nationalisation of Oil

Mohammad Mossadegh was elected Prime Minister by the Majles, representing a democratic surge.

His government nationalised the Iranian oil industry, challenging British interests.

1953 – CIA- and MI6-backed Coup d’état

Mossadegh was overthrown in a coup, and the Shah’s power was restored with Western support.

Parliamentary elections resumed but under increasing royal control and repression.

Late 20th Century: Islamic Revolution and New Electoral Framework

1979 – Islamic Revolution and Abolishment of Monarchy

The Shah was overthrown, replaced by an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini.

The monarchy and its electoral institutions were dismantled.

1979–1980 – Referendum on Islamic Republic and Assembly of Experts Election

A national referendum overwhelmingly approved the establishment of the Islamic Republic.

Elections for the Assembly of Experts to draft the new constitution were held, setting the theocratic framework.

1980 – First Majles Elections under Islamic Republic

Parliamentary elections took place within the new theocratic system, with candidates vetted for ideological conformity.

Post-Revolution Electoral Developments and Political Struggles

1989 – Constitutional Amendments and Leadership Transition

The constitution was amended following Khomeini’s death, consolidating powers of the Supreme Leader.

Elections continued but with restrictions imposed by the Guardian Council on candidates.

1997 – Presidential Election of Mohammad Khatami

Marked a reformist wave; Khatami’s victory reflected popular desire for political liberalisation.

2005 & 2009 – Contested Presidential Elections

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad’s election and re-election were controversial, with allegations of fraud in 2009 sparking the Green Movement protests.

21st Century: Continued Electoral Cycles and Authoritarian Controls

2013 – Election of Hassan Rouhani

Seen as a moderate and pragmatic choice, indicating some public appetite for reform within the system.

2017 & 2021 – Presidential Elections

Elections continued amid tightening candidate vetting by the Guardian Council, limiting opposition.

The 2021 election saw the victory of hardliner Ebrahim Raisi.

2020s – Ongoing Political Tensions

Despite regular elections, political freedoms remain constrained, with significant portions of society disenfranchised or boycotting the process.

Iran’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 reflects a tumultuous struggle between aspirations for democracy and authoritarian retrenchment. The early constitutional era introduced parliamentary elections but was hindered by royal and foreign interference. The mid-20th century witnessed brief democratic openings overshadowed by coups and monarchy-led authoritarianism.

The Islamic Revolution of 1979 fundamentally reshaped the electoral landscape, replacing secular monarchy with a theocratic republic. While elections continue regularly, they operate within a system tightly controlled by unelected religious authorities, limiting genuine political competition.

Despite these constraints, Iran’s electoral history remains a testament to the persistent, if often fraught, engagement of its people with political processes — navigating between authoritarian control and democratic aspirations.

Major Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Iran (1900–2025)

Iran’s journey through modern democracy has been profoundly influenced by a series of pivotal electoral events, revolutions, coups, and reforms both within its borders and in the wider global context. These key moments have shaped the nation’s political structure, electoral systems, and democratic trajectory from the early 20th century to the present day.

The Constitutional Revolution (1905–1907)

Significance:
Iran’s first major democratic milestone, this revolution led to the establishment of the Majles (parliament) and the adoption of the first constitution in 1906. It introduced modern electoral politics, albeit limited by social hierarchies and restricted suffrage.

Impact on Democracy:
Laid the foundations for parliamentary governance and representative elections, challenging absolute monarchy and traditional authority.

 World War I and Reza Shah’s Rise (1914–1925)

Global Context:
The turmoil of World War I weakened the Qajar dynasty, leading to political instability.

Local Outcome:
Reza Khan’s coup in 1921 and eventual ascension as Reza Shah in 1925 ended the constitutional period, replacing it with an authoritarian monarchy.

Impact on Democracy:
Suppressed democratic institutions; elections became tightly controlled, limiting political pluralism for decades.

Post-World War II Electoral Liberalisation and the 1951 Election

Global Influence:
Post-war decolonisation and democratic waves inspired political awakening in Iran.

1951 Nationalisation and Election:
Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh’s election victory reflected popular support for oil nationalisation.

Impact on Democracy:
Marked a brief but significant exercise in parliamentary democracy before the 1953 coup.

The 1953 Coup d’État

Event:
A US and UK-backed coup overthrew democratically elected Mosaddegh, reinstating Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’s authoritarian rule.

Impact on Democracy:
Ended democratic experiment; ushered in two more decades of political repression and electoral manipulation.

White Revolution and Electoral Reforms (1963)

Global Context:
A period of modernisation and Cold War geopolitics.

Domestic Reform:
The Shah introduced the White Revolution, which included granting women the right to vote and stand in elections.

Impact on Democracy:
Expanded electoral franchise but within a tightly controlled political system.

The 1979 Islamic Revolution

Global Resonance:
Part of a global wave of revolutionary change, it overthrew the Shah’s regime.

Impact on Democracy:
Created the Islamic Republic with a theocratic constitution, combining elections with clerical oversight and new democratic institutions such as the Guardian Council.

The Establishment of the Guardian Council (1980)

Event:
This powerful body was created to vet all electoral candidates to ensure ideological conformity.

Impact on Democracy:
Introduced institutional checks on electoral competition, limiting candidate eligibility and opposition strength.

Introduction of Direct Presidential Elections (1980)

Event:
Iran began electing its president through popular vote, introducing a new layer of electoral democracy.

Impact on Democracy:
Enabled some level of political competition, although under strict vetting rules.

Reformist Movement and 1997 Presidential Election

Global Context:
Post-Cold War global democratisation trends influenced Iranian reformists.

Event:
Mohammad Khatami’s landslide victory represented popular demand for political liberalisation.

Impact on Democracy:
Sparked hopes for electoral openness, though conservative pushback limited reform implementation.

2009 Green Movement and Election Controversy

Event:
Mass protests erupted following disputed presidential election results favouring incumbent Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.

Global Attention:
Highlighted tensions between authoritarian control and democratic aspirations.

Impact on Democracy:
Demonstrated widespread desire for transparent elections but resulted in repression and tighter controls.

2021 Parliamentary Elections

Event:
Marked by widespread disqualifications of reformist candidates by the Guardian Council.

Impact on Democracy:
Led to a conservative-dominated parliament, further restricting electoral pluralism.

2024 Presidential Election

Event:
Prabowo Subianto’s (a reformist-leaning figure) victory with an endorsed running mate from the previous administration signals shifting political alliances.

Impact on Democracy:
Indicates ongoing evolution and factionalism within the electoral landscape under systemic constraints.

From constitutional aspirations in the early 20th century to contemporary theocratic elections, Iran’s democratic development has been shaped by both internal struggles and external geopolitical forces. Major electoral events—revolutions, coups, reforms, and contested elections—have continually redefined the balance between authoritarianism and popular representation. Understanding these key moments is essential for analysing Iran’s complex democratic evolution.

Certainly! Below is a CSV-style table summarising Iran’s general elections from 1900 to 2025. It includes the electoral system, ruling party (or dominant power), voter turnout where available, and major political issues for each key election period.

Explanation for electionanalyst.com :

Iran’s electoral history reflects a complex interplay between early constitutional aspirations, authoritarian monarchy, and theocratic rule under the Islamic Republic. The 1906 Constitutional Revolution introduced parliamentary elections, marking Iran’s first steps toward democracy, though limited by social and political constraints.

The Pahlavi era (1925–1979) witnessed authoritarian consolidation, with elections largely controlled or symbolic. Genuine democratic competition was rare, particularly after the 1953 coup that undermined popular nationalism.

Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran established a theocratic republic where elections occur regularly, but candidate vetting and political controls restrict genuine electoral democracy. Voter turnout has varied, often reflecting public enthusiasm or disillusionment with the political system.

Key political issues across this timeline include struggles over sovereignty, centralisation of power, political liberalisation, suppression of opposition, the impact of war, and ongoing tensions between reformist and conservative factions.

Global Electoral Trends in Iran by Decade (1900–2025): Democratization, Innovations, and Authoritarian Rollbacks

Iran’s electoral journey over the past 125 years mirrors broader global patterns of political experimentation, democratization efforts, and authoritarian retrenchment. Examining each decade reveals how international and domestic forces shaped the country’s electoral landscape — from early constitutional aspirations to contemporary controlled elections under an Islamic theocracy.

1900s–1910s: Constitutional Awakening and Electoral Foundations

The early 20th century saw Iran’s Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911), aligning with global currents of political reform and modern state-building. The introduction of a parliamentary system and elections marked a crucial innovation, albeit limited in scope and plagued by elite manipulation. This era reflected a broader global wave of constitutionalism, yet suffrage remained restricted, mirroring trends in many parts of the world.

1920s–1940s: Authoritarian Consolidation and Electoral Centralisation

Globally, the interwar period witnessed both democratic experiments and authoritarian backlashes. In Iran, Reza Shah’s rise in the 1920s led to a tightening grip over political life. Electoral processes became largely symbolic, controlled tightly by the regime, echoing the authoritarian rollbacks seen in contemporaneous states like Italy and Spain. The 1940s briefly saw a return of political pluralism under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi but still within a constrained framework.

1950s: Democratic Aspirations and Foreign Interventions

The 1950s were marked globally by decolonization and struggles for democratic governance. Iran’s 1953 coup d’état, overthrowing democratically elected Prime Minister Mossadegh, starkly represented Cold War-era authoritarian interference. Electoral democracy was suspended as the Shah strengthened autocratic rule, reflecting a wider pattern of superpower interventions limiting democratic consolidation in strategic regions.

1960s–1970s: Controlled Modernisation and Electoral Facades

While much of the world experienced democratic expansion, Iran under the Shah showcased authoritarian modernisation. Elections during this period were orchestrated to legitimise the monarchy’s dominance, with limited political freedoms and opposition suppression. This mirrored similar electoral facades in several developing nations, where authoritarian regimes adopted electoral rituals without genuine competition.

1980s: Revolutionary Realignment and Theocratic Control

The global political landscape in the 1980s was characterised by ideological struggles and regime changes. Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution replaced the monarchy with a theocratic system embedding religious oversight into electoral politics. While elections were held for various assemblies and the presidency, candidate vetting by clerical bodies ensured tight control, exemplifying authoritarian rollbacks under the guise of revolutionary legitimacy.

1990s: Reformist Momentum Amid Constraints

The 1990s brought global optimism about democratic reforms after the Cold War. Iran saw a reformist surge with Mohammad Khatami’s 1997 presidential victory, signalling hopes for liberalisation. However, entrenched clerical powers maintained control over elections through disqualifications and media restrictions, revealing limits to electoral innovation and the persistence of authoritarian resilience.

2000s: Electoral Contestation and Popular Unrest

In line with worldwide democratic challenges in the 2000s, including contested elections and social movements, Iran’s 2009 presidential election sparked the Green Movement — a mass mobilisation protesting alleged fraud. This moment underscored tensions between popular demands for democratic accountability and state authoritarianism, echoing global trends of electoral crisis and contested legitimacy.

2010s–2020s: Persistent Authoritarianism Amid Limited Participation

Recent decades have seen continued restrictions on candidate eligibility, low voter turnouts, and public disillusionment in Iran’s elections. These reflect a global pattern where authoritarian regimes maintain electoral façades to project legitimacy while curtailing genuine competition. The COVID-19 pandemic further complicated electoral participation, mirroring challenges faced worldwide.

Iran’s electoral history exemplifies the oscillation between democratization efforts and authoritarian rollbacks that have characterised much of the global political evolution since 1900. From constitutional aspirations to revolutionary theocracy, the country’s electoral processes reveal how innovation is often constrained by entrenched power structures. Understanding these trends provides crucial context for Iran’s future political trajectory within an ever-changing global electoral landscape.

Why the 2006 Election in Iran Was Controversial — A Political Analyst’s Perspective

The 2006 Iranian parliamentary election was marked by significant controversy, emblematic of the broader tensions between reformist aspirations and conservative control within the Islamic Republic. From a political analyst’s standpoint, several factors contributed to the contentious nature of this election.

Firstly, the Guardian Council’s vetting process severely restricted candidate eligibility, disqualifying thousands of reformist hopefuls on often vague or ideological grounds. This move ensured a conservative-dominated candidate pool, undermining the electoral competitiveness and the electorate’s ability to choose freely.

Secondly, the election occurred amid heightened international scrutiny over Iran’s nuclear programme, which conservative factions leveraged to bolster nationalist sentiments. The political climate thus favoured hardliners, marginalising reformist voices advocating for more openness and engagement with the West.

Furthermore, voter turnout, while officially reported as moderate, was widely perceived as depressed due to public disillusionment. Many reform-minded citizens abstained in protest against what they saw as a pre-determined outcome.

In essence, the 2006 election underscored the persistent struggle within Iran’s political system: the facade of democratic elections coexisting with tightly controlled political institutions. This dynamic raises fundamental questions about the nature of electoral legitimacy and democratic representation in authoritarian contexts.

A Journalistic Summary of the 1900 Eastern European Elections

The dawn of the 20th century in Eastern Europe was a period characterised by cautious political awakening and tentative steps towards electoral participation. Across the region, imperial dominions such as the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires maintained tight control, limiting suffrage and manipulating electoral processes to preserve autocratic rule.

Elections were generally restricted to property-owning males, excluding the vast majority of peasants and working classes. Political parties were nascent and fragmented, often reflecting ethnic and nationalist divides rather than cohesive ideological platforms.

Nonetheless, these elections laid the groundwork for burgeoning nationalist movements that would soon reshape the political landscape. Despite their limited scope, the 1900 elections exposed the growing demand for political representation and foreshadowed the upheavals that would culminate in the First World War and subsequent revolutions.

In summary, the 1900 Eastern European elections were less about genuine democratic choice and more a reflection of rigid social hierarchies and imperial strategies to manage dissent — a prelude to the seismic changes that awaited the region.

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