Explaining the Electoral System of Mauritius (1900–2025)-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

Mauritius, a small island nation in the Indian Ocean, has evolved significantly in its electoral structure over the last century. From colonial-era restricted suffrage to a sophisticated hybrid system blending majoritarian principles with proportional representation, the country’s electoral development reflects both local dynamics and broader Commonwealth influences. This article outlines the evolution of Mauritius's electoral system from 1900 to 2025.

Colonial Foundations: Pre-1948 – No Mass Electoral System

Before 1948, Mauritius did not have a general electoral system in the democratic sense. As a British colony, governance was dominated by the Governor and a mostly appointed Legislative Council. Voting was limited to a small, elite class, largely defined by property ownership, income, education, and literacy in English—a barrier that excluded most of the Indian-origin population and working classes.

The 1948 Breakthrough – Introduction of Elections with Limited Franchise

In 1948, Mauritius held its first election under a majoritarian system, based on the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) method. This marked the introduction of a partially elected Legislative Council. While still highly restricted, the voting franchise was expanded to include more residents (based on qualifications), introducing ethnic and class tensions that would later define electoral politics.

System: FPTP

Seats: 19 elected, 12 appointed

Franchise: Limited, property-based

Representation: Ethnic and communal identity began to influence party structures.

1950s–1960s: Incremental Reform and Movement Toward Full Suffrage

The 1959 general election was pivotal. It was the first to use universal adult suffrage under British rule and continued the use of the FPTP system. Electoral districts were drawn to reflect population distribution, though communal politics remained pronounced.

By the 1967 general election—considered the de facto independence referendum—the FPTP system was still in use, but the political system now featured vibrant party competition between the pro-independence Mauritius Labour Party and the anti-independence PMSD.

System: FPTP

Seats: 62 elected (across 20 three-member constituencies and one dual-member constituency for Rodrigues)

Notable Feature: “Best Loser System” (BLS) introduced to balance communal representation post-election.

Post-Independence: A Unique Hybrid Electoral Model

Following independence in 1968, Mauritius retained the FPTP system, but formalised the Best Loser System (BLS)—a constitutional innovation designed to correct potential imbalances in ethnic representation resulting from majoritarian voting.

Key Features Post-1968:

First-Past-The-Post (FPTP):

21 constituencies elect 3 members each (except Rodrigues, which elects 2).

Voters have three votes in each constituency.

Best Loser System (BLS):

Up to 8 additional seats are allocated to candidates who were not elected but received high vote counts.

The BLS uses declared ethnicity (on nomination forms) to ensure “fair” representation of major groups (Hindu, Muslim, Chinese, General Population).

Proportional Elements:

While not proportional representation in the European sense, BLS introduces a compensatory element.

Its goal is not to represent parties proportionally but to correct ethnic under-representation.

21st Century and Electoral Reform Debates

Between 2000 and 2025, the electoral system has remained largely unchanged structurally. Mauritius continues to use its distinctive FPTP + BLS hybrid, though numerous electoral reform commissions and civil society voices have pushed for proportional representation (PR) to better reflect party support and to modernise the system.

Key reform proposals have included:

Replacing or reforming the Best Loser System (seen as archaic and ethnicised).

Introducing party-list proportional representation for part of the seats.

Promoting gender balance through quotas or additional seats.

None of these proposals have been fully enacted by 2025, but they remain on the national agenda.

Summary: System Overview (1900–2025)

Mauritius’s electoral system is among the most unique in the Commonwealth. While it retains a majoritarian base through FPTP, its use of the Best Loser System makes it a hybrid model designed to address the country’s deeply pluralistic society. Although the system has delivered relative political stability, ongoing debates about reform indicate a national appetite for a more inclusive, party-based, and less communal electoral future.

Mauritius’ Transition to a Multi-Party Democratic Electoral System: A Historical Overview

Mauritius, the Indian Ocean island nation often lauded for its political stability and democratic credentials, underwent a gradual and structured transition from colonial rule to a functioning multi-party democracy. This transition was neither abrupt nor violent but rather the result of decades of constitutional development, political maturity, and grassroots mobilisation.

Colonial Foundations and Early Political Mobilisation

Mauritius remained a British colony from 1810 until its independence in 1968. During the colonial period, political participation was severely restricted, largely confined to the Franco-Mauritian elite and a small, English-speaking segment of society. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw incremental reforms, including the 1885 Constitution which introduced limited franchise, though still heavily weighted by property and education qualifications.

It wasn’t until the 1940s and 1950s that real momentum for broader democratic participation began to build. Influential labour movements, particularly under the leadership of Dr Seewoosagur Ramgoolam and the Mauritius Labour Party (MLP), demanded wider suffrage and greater representation for the island’s diverse ethnic and working-class population.

Establishment of the Multi-Party System

Mauritius’ transition to a full-fledged multi-party system can be dated to the general elections of 1959, held under a new constitution that allowed for universal adult suffrage for the first time. This election marked a seismic shift in Mauritian politics. It enfranchised a far wider population, particularly Indo-Mauritians and Creoles, and witnessed the rise of several political parties with varying ideological and ethnic bases.

From this point, Mauritius began functioning as a de facto multi-party system, with the MLP, the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB), and Parti Mauricien (later the PMSD – Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate) representing distinct constituencies and political platforms. The competition between parties became a defining characteristic of Mauritian politics.

1968 Independence and Constitutional Democracy

Mauritius formally attained independence from Britain on 12 March 1968, under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. The 1967 general election, which determined the first post-independence government, saw the formation of a coalition between the MLP, IFB, and CAM (Comité d'Action Musulman), securing a majority and paving the way for Ramgoolam to become the first Prime Minister.

This moment marked Mauritius' official transition to a sovereign, multi-party democratic state governed by a constitution that enshrined regular elections, civil liberties, judicial independence, and power-sharing mechanisms. Subsequent elections have been held at regular five-year intervals, widely regarded as free and fair.

Electoral Maturity and Democratic Consolidation

Since independence, Mauritius has maintained a robust democratic tradition. Power has regularly alternated between parties such as the MLP, the MMM (Mouvement Militant Mauricien), and the MSM (Militant Socialist Movement), often in coalition with smaller parties. The peaceful transfer of power through elections, most notably in 1982, 1995, and 2000, reflects a mature democratic system.

The Electoral Supervisory Commission, established by the constitution, has played a key role in maintaining electoral integrity. Moreover, Mauritius has embraced proportional representation mechanisms (such as the “best loser system”) to ensure balanced ethnic representation, further strengthening its democratic framework.

Mauritius’ transition to a multi-party democratic system was a process marked by constitutional evolution, popular mobilisation, and institutional development. The milestone year was undoubtedly 1959, with the introduction of universal suffrage and genuine electoral competition. Independence in 1968 solidified this democratic foundation, making Mauritius one of the most politically stable and democratic nations in Africa.

Today, Mauritius stands as a regional model for peaceful co-existence, electoral transparency, and democratic governance.

Mauritius General Election Results and Political Outcomes (1900–2025)

Mauritius, a multi-ethnic island nation in the Indian Ocean, has developed one of the most stable democracies in Africa. Since gaining independence from Britain in 1968, its electoral history has been marked by high voter turnout, peaceful transitions of power, and an entrenched multi-party parliamentary system. The country’s National Assembly elections, held every five years, have consistently demonstrated the vibrancy of its democratic processes.

This article provides a timeline and overview of Mauritius’s general election results from 1900 to 2025, with emphasis on key years like 1977, 1982, 2005, and the most recent 2019 and 2024 (or projected 2025) elections.

Pre-Independence Elections (1900–1967)

Colonial Political Structure

During the colonial period under British rule, Mauritius operated under a limited franchise. Electoral reforms were introduced gradually:

1885 Constitution: Voting limited to property-owning men.

1948 Reform: Extended the vote to a wider population (approx. 11% of adults).

1959 Elections: First under universal adult suffrage. Key parties included:

Labour Party (Mauritius Labour Party - MLP)

Independent Forward Bloc (IFB)

Parti Mauricien

1959 General Election

Labour Party: 24 seats

IFB: 5 seats

Parti Mauricien: 6 seats

Voter Turnout: Approx. 91%

1967 General Election (Independence Referendum in Disguise)
Held before independence in 1968.

MLP–IFB–CAM alliance: 39 seats

Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate (PMSD): 23 seats

Turnout: ~91.3%

Outcome: Mandate for independence passed narrowly (54% popular vote).

Post-Independence Elections (1968–2025)

1976 General Election

MLP: 28 seats

MMM (Mauritian Militant Movement): 34 seats

PMSD: 23 seats

Turnout: ~88.5%
Outcome: Despite MMM winning most seats, Labour and PMSD formed a coalition to govern.

1977: Key Election Reference Year

Mauritius did not hold a general election in 1977. However, by-elections and major political realignments occurred. The key moment came in:

1982 General Election

MMM–PSM alliance: 60 seats (clean sweep)

MLP: 0 seats

Turnout: 88.8%
Outcome: Historic landslide for the MMM alliance. Anerood Jugnauth became Prime Minister. Paul Bérenger (MMM leader) emerged as a central political figure.

Notable Later Elections

1995 General Election

MLP–MMM alliance: 60 seats

MSM (Militant Socialist Movement): 0 seats

Turnout: 79%
Outcome: Navin Ramgoolam (MLP) became PM.

2005 General Election

MLP alliance: 42 seats

MSM–MMM: 24 seats

Turnout: 81.5%
Outcome: Navin Ramgoolam returned as Prime Minister.

2014 General Election

L’Alliance Lepep (MSM–PMSD–ML): 47 seats

MLP–MMM alliance: 13 seats

Turnout: 74.1%
Outcome: Sir Anerood Jugnauth returned as PM.

2019 General Election

MSM-led alliance: 42 seats

Labour Party (MLP): 14 seats

MMM: 9 seats

Turnout: 76.8%
Outcome: Pravind Jugnauth (MSM) retained power.

Projected 2024/2025 General Election

(If elections occurred in 2024, results would be pending. Assuming scheduled cycle, the election may fall in 2024–2025.)

Main Contenders:

MSM (Pravind Jugnauth)

MLP (Navin Ramgoolam)

MMM (Paul Bérenger or successor)

PMSD, Rezistans ek Alternativ

Expected Turnout: Historically between 74–91%

Note: Due to the country’s political culture, coalition formations before or after elections significantly affect seat distribution and governance.

Summary of Major Electoral Trends (1967–2025)

From limited suffrage under colonial rule to a robust democracy post-independence, Mauritius’s electoral history reflects a remarkable journey of political maturity. With high voter engagement and peaceful transitions of power, the country remains a model for democratic governance in the region.

Mauritius Elections 1900–2025: Major Political Parties, Leaders, and Outcomes

From colonial rule to a stable multiparty democracy, Mauritius has undergone significant political transformations from 1900 to 2025. This article provides a historical overview of the major political parties, key leaders, and electoral outcomes that have shaped the island nation’s democratic journey.

Colonial Period (1900–1967): Limited Franchise, Elite Representation

During the early 20th century, Mauritius was a British colony, and elections were restricted by property and literacy qualifications, favouring a Franco-Mauritian elite. The early political landscape was dominated by conservative candidates, largely representing planter and merchant interests.

Key Parties and Leaders (Pre-independence):

Parti de l’Ordre: Represented Franco-Mauritian planters.

Dr. Maurice Curé: Founded the Labour Party in 1936 to champion workers’ rights.

Outcome:
Democratic participation was minimal until suffrage reforms in the 1940s and 1950s expanded the franchise, including Indo-Mauritians and Creoles.

Path to Independence (1950s–1968): The Rise of Mass Politics

Post-WWII reforms ushered in broader electoral participation. The 1953 and 1959 general elections introduced broader enfranchisement, shifting the balance of power.

Mauritius Labour Party (MLP) – Led by Dr. Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, the MLP emerged as the dominant party advocating for independence.

Parti Mauricien (later PMSD) – Led by Jules Koenig and later Gaëtan Duval, the PMSD opposed independence and had significant support among the Creole and Franco-Mauritian communities.

Outcome:
In the 1967 general elections, a coalition of the Labour Party, Comité d’Action Musulman (CAM), and the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB) narrowly defeated PMSD. This victory paved the way for Mauritius' independence in 1968, with Dr. Ramgoolam as the first Prime Minister.

Post-Independence Era (1968–1990s): Coalition Politics and Instability

Mauritius entered a period of coalition governments, political instability, and eventual constitutional reform.

Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM) – Founded in 1969 by Paul Bérenger, the MMM promoted radical reform and socialism.

Achieved power in 1982 in a landslide victory, with Anerood Jugnauth as PM and Bérenger as Finance Minister.

Mauritian Socialist Movement (MSM) – Formed in 1983 by Anerood Jugnauth after a rift with MMM.

Dominated the 1983 and 1987 elections in coalition with PMSD.

Outcome:
The MMM's brief rule in 1982 marked a shift in Mauritian politics, but internal conflict led to the MSM’s rise. The electoral system was stabilised with regular peaceful transitions.

Democratic Consolidation (1990s–2010s): Party Alternation and Reform

By the 1990s, Mauritius had developed a mature democratic culture, with frequent alternations of power between major coalitions.

1995 Election: Labour-MMM alliance won all 60 mainland seats, and Navin Ramgoolam (MLP) became PM.

2000 Agreement: A historic MSM-MMM pact saw Jugnauth hand over the PM post to Bérenger in 2003, making him the first non-Hindu Prime Minister.

2010s:

Alliance de l’Avenir (Labour, PMSD, MSM) won in 2010.

In 2014, MSM under Pravind Jugnauth, son of Anerood, led the Alliance Lepep to a decisive win.

Outcome:
The era featured robust party competition, legal reforms, and the consolidation of judicial independence.

2020–2025: Continuity and Emerging Challenges

The 2019 general elections reaffirmed the dominance of MSM and Pravind Jugnauth, who formed government again amid controversies over electoral transparency and governance issues.

2024–2025 Outlook:
MSM remains in power, but opposition parties such as the Labour Party, MMM, and PMSD have gained traction amid economic pressures and allegations of corruption.

Key Leaders (2025):

Pravind Jugnauth (MSM) – Incumbent PM.

Navin Ramgoolam (Labour) – Former PM, still active in politics.

Paul Bérenger (MMM) – Retired, but his legacy remains strong.

Outcome:
As of 2025, Mauritius remains a multiparty democracy with a vibrant political culture, though demands for electoral reform and increased youth participation are rising.

Mauritius’ electoral history from 1900 to 2025 is marked by its transition from elitist colonial rule to a pluralistic democracy. Dominated first by the Labour Party, then shaped by the rise of MMM, MSM, and various coalitions, the political landscape has shown both resilience and adaptability. Despite challenges, Mauritius continues to uphold its democratic institutions, setting an example in the African and Indian Ocean regions.

Electoral Violence and Irregularities in Mauritius (1900–2025)

Mauritius, often lauded for its democratic stability in the African region, has largely maintained peaceful electoral processes since independence in 1968. However, this does not imply a complete absence of electoral irregularities, controversies, or political tensions. The country's political evolution has seen a few contentious episodes—some marked by allegations of fraud, electoral violence, legal disputes, or boycotts.

Reported Irregularities and Electoral Violence (1900–2025)

1982 General Election: Allegations of Voter List Manipulation

Though the 1982 election was hailed for its record-breaking landslide victory—where the MMM-PSM alliance won all 60 mainland seats—there were underlying tensions. Opposition voices raised concerns over alleged irregularities in the voter registry. While these issues did not lead to violence or annulment, they contributed to a broader conversation about electoral fairness.

1995 General Election: Electoral Code Violations

In 1995, the Labour Party-MMM alliance swept the polls in another landslide. However, the campaign period saw accusations of misuse of state resources and state-owned media by incumbent parties. Observers noted breaches of the Representation of the People Act, though no violent outbreaks were reported.

2014 General Election: Social Media Misinformation and Tensions

Although free and competitive, the 2014 election witnessed the rise of digital disinformation. Several reports highlighted fake news campaigns, personal attacks, and racially charged content circulated online—raising concerns over electoral ethics and the polarising effect of unregulated online platforms.

2019 General Election: Serious Electoral Allegations

This election marked one of the most controversial in post-independence Mauritius. Multiple opposition parties, especially the Labour Party and MMM, accused the ruling MSM (led by Pravind Jugnauth) of vote-buying, bias in the Electoral Commission, and issues surrounding the use of "computer rooms" during vote counting. There were also public protests and legal challenges following the results.

Outcome: Despite the noise, the Supreme Court rejected the appeals and upheld the results in 2021. The situation remained peaceful overall, although the credibility of the electoral process came under public scrutiny.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections (1900–2025)

No Major Annulled National Elections (1968–2025)

There is no record of a general election in Mauritius being officially annulled at the national level during this period. Petitions challenging specific results have been filed—but courts have largely dismissed them or upheld the validity of the polls.

Partial Annulment – Constituency-Level (Post-2019)

Several electoral petitions were lodged post-2019 regarding results in individual constituencies:

Case Example: In 2021, opposition candidates challenged results in several ridings. However, the Supreme Court dismissed most petitions for lack of evidence, reaffirming the legitimacy of the overall process.

Boycotts and Minor Delays

While there were no major national-level election boycotts, smaller opposition groups occasionally boycotted municipal elections or by-elections to protest alleged bias in electoral administration or demand reforms.

Delays in by-elections were sometimes observed due to administrative or judicial processes but were not politically motivated nor widespread.

Mauritius stands as a largely stable democracy with a record of peaceful power transfers. However, the island's electoral history is not immune to controversies. While not marred by widespread electoral violence, Mauritius has faced allegations of electoral malpractice, procedural opacity, and political distrust—especially in recent years. These episodes highlight the need for continuous reform, increased transparency, and vigilant civil society engagement to uphold the credibility of its electoral system.

Democracy Index & Reform in Mauritius (1900–2025): A Historical Overview

Mauritius, a small island nation in the Indian Ocean, has charted a unique path in the global narrative of democratic governance. From colonial rule to a model parliamentary democracy, Mauritius has maintained a relatively stable democratic trajectory, with periodic reforms strengthening its political institutions. This article explores Mauritius’s democracy index ranking trends, key reforms, and any evidence of democratic backsliding between 1900 and 2025.

Colonial Rule and Limited Participation (1900–1968)

Under British colonial administration (1810–1968), political representation in Mauritius was minimal and racially stratified. The early 20th century featured highly restricted suffrage, limited primarily to property-owning elites. Although elections were held, they bore little resemblance to full electoral democracy. Notable developments included:

1929: First general elections under restricted franchise.

1947: Franchise expanded via constitutional reforms, allowing more Mauritians, including Indo-Mauritians, to vote.

1959 & 1963: Reforms further expanded representation in the Legislative Council and introduced a ministerial system.

Despite these advancements, Mauritius during this period would have ranked poorly on any democracy index due to the absence of universal suffrage and colonial control over key decisions.

Post-Independence Democratic Consolidation (1968–1991)

Mauritius gained independence from Britain on 12 March 1968, adopting a Westminster-style parliamentary system. From that point, Mauritius steadily built a reputation as one of Africa’s most vibrant democracies.

Key reforms and democratic practices included:

Proportional representation (Best Loser System): Designed to ensure ethnic balance, this unique electoral mechanism has been praised for maintaining communal harmony.

Regular free and fair elections: Held every five years, with high voter turnout and peaceful transfers of power.

An independent judiciary and robust press.

Mauritius ranked consistently high in democratic performance throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, with Freedom House and other indicators rating it as "Free" and "Electoral Democracy".

Democratic Maturity and Reforms (1992–2010)

Mauritius transitioned to a Republic in 1992, retaining the parliamentary system with a ceremonial president. This period saw democratic deepening, including:

1992 Constitution (Amendment): Solidified the separation of powers.

Expansion of civil liberties and anti-corruption measures.

Growing independence of electoral institutions, including the Electoral Supervisory Commission.

By 2010, Mauritius was frequently cited by organisations such as the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) as one of the few African states with a full democratic status. In the EIU Democracy Index, Mauritius routinely ranked as the top democracy in Africa and among the highest in the developing world.

Challenges and Minor Democratic Strains (2011–2025)

While Mauritius has maintained its democratic character, recent years have witnessed challenges that sparked public debate and scrutiny:

2014–2020: Allegations of police abuses and judicial bias, although institutions largely remained intact.

2019 General Election: Free and fair, but accompanied by criticism over campaign finance opacity and use of state resources.

2020–2022: The Wakashio oil spill and subsequent protests led to accusations of government unaccountability, prompting calls for greater transparency.

However, these were not signs of systemic backsliding. Electoral democracy remained robust, with peaceful opposition activity, vibrant civil society, and active political competition.

Reforms in this period included:

Digitalisation of electoral processes.

Stricter campaign finance proposals, though implementation remains partial.

Efforts to revise the Best Loser System to align with modern democratic norms, still under parliamentary debate.

Democracy Index Rankings (Selected Years)

Major Electoral Reforms in Mauritius (1900–2025)

Mauritius, a small island nation in the Indian Ocean, has developed a strong reputation for democratic governance and regular elections. From its colonial foundations to its status as one of Africa’s most stable democracies, the electoral journey of Mauritius is marked by several key reforms. This article outlines the major electoral changes from 1900 to 2025 that have shaped its democratic evolution.

 Early Colonial Electoral Developments (1900–1947)

At the beginning of the 20th century, Mauritius was a British colony. Voting was limited to a very small elite, primarily European settlers and wealthy Indo-Mauritians, based on property and literacy qualifications.

Limited Franchise (pre-1947): The right to vote was highly restricted. Only around 1.5% of the population could vote, mostly comprising landowners and professionals.

No Elected Government: Legislative power remained largely in the hands of the British Governor and appointed officials.

Universal Suffrage and Party Politics (1947–1968)

A turning point came in 1947, with major electoral reform instituted by the British colonial administration.

Introduction of Universal Adult Suffrage (1947): This reform allowed all adults aged 21 and over, regardless of income or ethnicity, to vote. This massively expanded the electorate from 11,000 to over 70,000.

Creation of Electoral Districts: Mauritius was divided into 19 electoral districts, which still form the basis of its electoral geography today.

Emergence of Political Parties: This period saw the rise of key political parties like the Labour Party and Parti Mauricien, setting the stage for future multi-party democracy.

Independence and the Best Loser System (1968)

With independence in 1968, Mauritius adopted a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy, but with significant adaptations.

Constitutional Reform: The 1968 Constitution provided for a National Assembly with 62 directly elected members.

Best Loser System Introduced: To safeguard ethnic representation in the legislature, Mauritius introduced a unique Best Loser System (BLS). This allocated up to 8 additional seats to the “best-performing losing candidates” from underrepresented communities, based on self-declared ethnic identity.

Ethnic Balancing: This system aimed to maintain communal harmony and ensure that the main ethnic groups—Hindus, Muslims, Chinese, Creoles, and Franco-Mauritians—were fairly represented.

Electoral Modernisation and Legal Reforms (1970s–1990s)

As democracy deepened, Mauritius introduced various legislative and institutional changes to strengthen the electoral process.

Creation of the Electoral Supervisory Commission (ESC): An independent body to oversee elections, ensuring transparency and credibility.

Proportional Representation Debates: Repeated discussions occurred about replacing or supplementing the first-past-the-post system with proportional representation. Though never implemented, it remained a point of political debate.

Lowering of Voting Age (1982): Voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 years.

Technological and Institutional Reforms (2000–2014)

Entering the 21st century, Mauritius focused on improving electoral management.

Use of Transparent Ballot Boxes (2005): Introduced to increase public confidence.

Voter ID Cards: The introduction of secure biometric ID cards helped reduce impersonation and fraud.

Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA) Recommendations: Several reforms were made based on regional electoral best practices.

Electoral Reforms Commission and Attempts to Modernise the BLS (2014–2020)

Sachs Commission (2001) and Carcassonne Report (2014): Both highlighted the need to reform or phase out the Best Loser System, labelling it outdated and discriminatory in a modern multi-ethnic state.

2014 White Paper on Electoral Reform: Proposed replacing the BLS with a mixed-member proportional system, but no consensus was reached.

Criticism of Mandatory Ethnic Declaration: Increasing calls from civil society to scrap the requirement for candidates to declare their ethnicity.

Post-2020 Developments and Outlook to 2025

While Mauritius has maintained regular, largely peaceful elections, criticism of the BLS and first-past-the-post system intensified post-2019.

No Major Legislative Reform Passed (2020–2025): Political deadlock prevented comprehensive electoral reform, though discussions persisted in Parliament and the press.

Increased Civic Pressure: The 2020–2025 period saw growing mobilisation from youth and rights groups demanding more inclusive, transparent, and proportional systems.

Mauritius’s electoral system has evolved significantly over the past century. From colonial restrictions to one of Africa’s most vibrant democracies, its reforms have been shaped by the need to balance ethnic diversity with democratic representation. However, persistent concerns over the Best Loser System and a lack of proportional representation suggest that further reform is necessary for Mauritius to modernise its democracy in line with global best practices.

A Comparative Analysis of Mauritius’ Electoral Systems from 1900 to 2025: Evolution Towards Greater Democracy

Between 1900 and 2025, Mauritius underwent a substantial transformation in its electoral system, transitioning from a colonial administrative setup with limited suffrage to a vibrant, multi-party democracy with regular elections and high levels of civic participation. Since the comparison is essentially of Mauritius with itself across two distinct historical periods, this article assesses the extent to which its system evolved and became more democratic over time.

Mauritius in the Early 20th Century (1900–1947): Colonial Rule and Restricted Franchise

In the early 1900s, Mauritius was a British colony governed under a colonial legislative framework. The Legislative Council was composed primarily of appointed officials and a small number of elected members. However, the right to vote was limited to a tiny, property-owning elite. The franchise was heavily restricted by income, property, and literacy qualifications, which effectively excluded the majority of the population, especially Indo-Mauritians and Creoles.

Electoral System: Plurality voting (first-past-the-post) for limited seats

Representation: Heavily skewed towards elite landowners and colonial administrators

Democracy Index (hypothetical): Very low; nominal elections with no mass participation

Mid-Century Reforms (1948–1968): Gradual Democratization

The post-WWII years ushered in gradual reforms. The 1948 constitutional changes introduced universal adult suffrage for the first time, significantly broadening political participation. This period saw the emergence of political parties like the Labour Party under Dr Seewoosagur Ramgoolam and growing demands for self-governance.

Key Reform (1948): Introduction of universal adult suffrage

Political Competition: Increased political pluralism with rise of mass parties

Democratic Quality: Substantial improvement due to broader inclusion

Post-Independence Mauritius (1968–1992): Entrenching a Parliamentary Democracy

Mauritius gained independence from Britain in 1968. It adopted a Westminster-style parliamentary system with a unicameral National Assembly. Elections were held regularly and were largely free and fair, although some communal tensions remained.

The “Best Loser System” was introduced to ensure fair representation of minority communities, a feature unique to Mauritius that aimed to preserve social harmony without distorting democratic choice.

Electoral System: Block vote in multi-member constituencies + Best Loser System

Democracy Quality: High; elections deemed fair, competitive, and inclusive

Challenges: Communal politics occasionally flared, but checks remained institutional

Modern Mauritius (1992–2025): A Consolidated Democracy

Mauritius became a republic in 1992 but retained its parliamentary democratic system. The country continued to rank high in international democracy indices (e.g., EIU’s Democracy Index), often regarded as one of Africa’s most stable democracies.

Innovations included the introduction of gender quotas, transparent electoral financing debates, and steady digitalisation of the electoral process. While criticisms lingered around the communal aspects of the Best Loser System, broad consensus preserved it for its balancing role.

Key Features:

Independent Electoral Commission

Robust party system (Labour Party, MSM, MMM, PMSD)

Peaceful transfer of power across elections

Democratic Standing (2020s): High – Competitive, transparent, and inclusive elections

Which Mauritius Was More Democratic?

There is no doubt that Mauritius in 2025 is substantially more democratic than in 1900. From a restricted colonial council serving a select few to a multiparty democratic republic with universal suffrage, Mauritius has made remarkable strides.

First Democratic Elections of the 20th Century: Countries, Systems, and Political Shifts

The 20th century witnessed a profound global shift toward representative governance, with many nations holding democratic elections for the first time. These initial forays into electoral democracy varied widely in terms of voting rights, political competition, and electoral systems used. Some were symbolic, while others laid the foundation for enduring democratic institutions.

Below is a country-by-country look at select nations that conducted their first democratic elections in the 20th century, alongside the systems they adopted.

Finland (1907)

System: Proportional Representation (PR)

Notable Features: First country in Europe to grant universal suffrage, including women’s right to vote and stand for office.

Background: Following autonomy within the Russian Empire, the 1906 parliamentary reform created a unicameral legislature. The 1907 election remains a landmark in suffrage history.

Austria (1907)

System: Two-round system (for lower house); later proportional representation after WWI

Notable Features: First election with universal male suffrage in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Background: Marked the decline of aristocratic dominance in favour of mass political movements like the Social Democrats.

Czechoslovakia (1920)

System: Proportional Representation

Notable Features: Adopted immediately after independence from Austria-Hungary.

Background: The First Czechoslovak Republic was one of the most democratic states in interwar Europe.

Turkey (1923)

System: Majoritarian (First-Past-The-Post), but within a one-party context

Notable Features: First elections after the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

Background: Though not fully competitive, they marked a transition from imperial rule to national sovereignty.

India (1951–52)

System: First-Past-The-Post

Notable Features: World’s largest democratic election at the time, with universal adult suffrage shortly after independence.

Background: Remarkable for implementing full democracy from the start, despite illiteracy and diversity.

Ghana (1951)

System: Limited franchise, majoritarian

Notable Features: First election under British colonial rule with African participation

Background: A milestone in African decolonisation, leading to full independence in 1957 and broader electoral reform.

South Korea (1948)

System: First-Past-The-Post

Notable Features: First national assembly elections after Japanese colonial rule

Background: Laid the foundation for the Republic of Korea, though later interrupted by authoritarian rule until democratisation resumed in the late 20th century.

Israel (1949)

System: Nationwide Proportional Representation

Notable Features: High electoral threshold, inclusive of multiple ethnic and religious groups

Background: First election following the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.

Indonesia (1955)

System: Proportional Representation

Notable Features: Highly inclusive with over 170 parties contesting

Background: Though followed by authoritarianism, the 1955 elections were regarded as free and fair.

Nigeria (1959)

System: First-Past-The-Post

Notable Features: Elections held under British rule as a step toward independence

Background: Resulted in self-rule in 1960, but democracy would be interrupted by military coups soon after.

Summary Table: First Democratic Elections in 20th Century

Democracy in Transition

The 20th century marked an era where democratic ideals took root in both post-imperial and post-colonial states. While some of these early elections occurred under limited or imperfect conditions, they signified a broader shift toward political representation and self-governance. The type of electoral system varied depending on colonial legacy, political stability, and societal structure, yet the aspiration for accountable government remained constant.

Timeline of Major Elections and Political Turning Points in Mauritius (1900–2025)

Mauritius has journeyed from a restricted colonial system to a vibrant multiparty democracy. The island’s electoral history reflects political evolution, ethnic balancing, and constitutional innovation. Below is a timeline of the most significant general elections and key political developments in Mauritius between 1900 and 2025.

1900–1947: Colonial Control and Limited Franchise

Pre-1947 Elections: Voting was extremely limited, reserved for wealthy property-owning men (mostly white or elite Indo-Mauritians). No real democratic framework existed; elections had minimal impact on governance, which remained under British colonial control.

1947 – First Step Towards Democracy

Election Date: 9 August 1948

Significance: Introduction of universal adult suffrage (for those over 21).

Outcome: Rise of working-class representation. Labour Party (led by Dr Seewoosagur Ramgoolam) emerged as a dominant force.

Turning Point: Set the stage for ethnic politics and formal party structures.

1953 – Expansion of Electoral Representation

Election Date: 15 December 1953

Context: Slight reforms expanded the number of elected seats and introduced greater representation for Indo-Mauritians.

Result: Labour Party maintained influence, but ethnic-based voting patterns became clearer.

1959 – First General Election under New Constitution

Election Date: 9 March 1959

Significance: Electoral system based on universal suffrage. Voting rights were fully extended to all adults aged 21 and above.

Result: Labour Party victory.

Impact: Formalised the shift towards democratic participation.

1963 – March Towards Independence

Election Date: 21 October 1963

Result: Labour Party won, amid increasing ethnic polarisation.

Political Climate: The independence debate intensified, with pro- and anti-independence factions emerging.

1967 – The Independence Election

Election Date: 7 August 1967

Parties: Labour Party–IFB–CAM coalition (pro-independence) vs. PMSD (anti-independence).

Result: Pro-independence coalition narrowly won.

Turning Point: Led to Mauritius gaining independence on 12 March 1968.

Significance: Introduction of the Best Loser System (BLS) to ensure ethnic balance in Parliament.

1976 – Rise of the MMM

Election Date: 20 December 1976

Outcome: Mouvement Militant Mauricien (MMM) led by Paul Bérenger won the most seats but could not form a government.

Turning Point: Signalled shift toward populist politics and working-class mobilisation.

1982 – Historic MMM Victory

Election Date: 11 June 1982

Result: MMM–PSM alliance won all 60 constituency seats (a complete wipeout of opposition).

Significance: First time a non-Labour government took power.

Collapse: The government collapsed in 1983 due to internal rifts.

1983 – Fragmentation and Return of Labour

Election Date: 21 August 1983

Outcome: Anerood Jugnauth formed MSM and allied with Labour to win.

Significance: Start of MSM's long-standing presence in Mauritian politics.

1991 – Consolidation of Power

Election Date: 15 September 1991

Result: MSM–MMM coalition won a landslide.

Impact: Jugnauth remained Prime Minister, cementing political dominance.

1995 – Labour’s Landslide Comeback

Election Date: 20 December 1995

Result: Labour–MMM alliance won all 60 seats; Anerood Jugnauth’s MSM lost entirely.

Turning Point: Rare complete reversal of political power.

2000 – Power Sharing Agreement

Election Date: 11 September 2000

Unique Feature: MSM-MMM pact included rotating Prime Ministership.

Outcome: Anerood Jugnauth (MSM) served as PM for 3 years, then handed over to Paul Bérenger (MMM), making him the first non-Hindu PM of Mauritius.

2005 – Labour Returns

Election Date: 3 July 2005

Result: Labour Party (led by Navin Ramgoolam) won with support from smaller parties.

Key Theme: Return to social democratic policies.

2010 – Alliance Politics Intensifies

Election Date: 5 May 2010

Outcome: Labour-MSM-PMSD alliance won.

Turning Point: Increasing focus on corruption, governance, and electoral reform discussions.

2014 – Jugnauth Dynasty Returns

Election Date: 10 December 2014

Result: Alliance Lepep (MSM-led) defeated Labour–MMM alliance.

Impact: Pravind Jugnauth’s role as future leader became prominent.

2019 – MSM Consolidates Power

Election Date: 7 November 2019

Result: MSM, led by Pravind Jugnauth, won 38 out of 62 seats.

Controversy: Opposition claimed electoral irregularities.

Legal Challenge: Supreme Court upheld results but highlighted areas for reform.

2024/2025 – Anticipated Election and Electoral Reform Debate

Expected Date: Late 2024 or early 2025 (within five-year mandate).

Key Themes:

Calls to abolish the Best Loser System.

Debates over proportional representation.

Pressure for greater transparency and youth representation.

Public Sentiment: Growing demand for modernisation of the electoral process.

The history of elections in Mauritius reflects its evolution from a colonial autocracy to a pluralistic democracy. From the pivotal 1967 independence election to the controversial 2019 polls, each contest has helped shape the nation’s democratic landscape. As the country approaches 2025, the spotlight is on overdue reforms that could redefine the future of its electoral system.

Major Global and Domestic Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Mauritius (1900–2025)

Mauritius, long celebrated as a beacon of democracy in the Indian Ocean, has experienced a steady evolution from colonial subjugation to democratic consolidation. This transformation did not occur in isolation—global currents of decolonisation, regional shifts in governance, and domestic political developments all contributed to shaping the nation’s democratic trajectory. Below is a chronological account of key electoral events, both global and local, that influenced and reshaped democracy in Mauritius between 1900 and 2025.

1947 – First Major Electoral Reform under British Rule

Context: Post-World War II wave of decolonisation and democratic demands.

Event: The British colonial administration introduced constitutional reforms that expanded the voting franchise significantly, allowing more Mauritians—particularly Indo-Mauritians and Creoles—to participate in elections.

Impact: Marked the beginning of broader political participation and multi-ethnic representation. It laid the groundwork for independence and democratic self-rule.

1959 – Full Adult Suffrage Introduced

Context: Growing anti-colonial movements across Asia and Africa.

Event: Mauritius adopted universal adult suffrage for the first time. Every adult, regardless of property, gender, or race, could vote.

Impact: Transformed the political landscape by empowering the majority Indian-origin population, enhancing legitimacy in electoral processes.

1968 – Independence and the Inauguration of Parliamentary Democracy

Context: The global post-colonial wave (India 1947, Ghana 1957, etc.) had reached Mauritius.

Event: Mauritius gained independence from Britain on 12 March 1968.

Impact: A fully functioning parliamentary democracy was established, modelled on the Westminster system. Elections became regular, competitive, and peaceful—rare achievements in post-colonial Africa.

1969 – Introduction of the Best Loser System

Context: Ethnic tensions and concerns over minority representation.

Event: Mauritius introduced a unique mechanism whereby additional parliamentary seats were allocated to “best losers” from underrepresented ethnic communities.

Impact: This system preserved social harmony and ensured inclusive representation, though later viewed as in need of reform to align with evolving democratic norms.

1982 & 1995 – Peaceful Transfer of Power Between Political Rivals

Context: Amidst coups and electoral violence in Africa, Mauritius demonstrated exceptional democratic maturity.

Event: Opposition parties were able to unseat incumbents through free and fair elections without disruption.

Impact: These moments reinforced democratic norms, setting Mauritius apart from many of its African peers.

1992 – Transition from Constitutional Monarchy to Republic

Context: Global trend of republicanism and national identity assertion post-Cold War.

Event: Mauritius became a Republic within the Commonwealth, replacing the British monarch with a ceremonial president.

Impact: Strengthened national sovereignty while retaining core democratic institutions.

2001–2010 – Rise of Electoral Monitoring and Civil Society Engagement

Context: Global wave of democracy promotion (post-Cold War, Millennium Development Goals).

Event: Mauritius embraced greater electoral oversight through local and international observers; civil society grew more active.

Impact: Boosted voter confidence, transparency, and democratic resilience.

2019 – Electoral Integrity Questioned Amid Rising Global Populism

Context: Populism, misinformation, and executive overreach were on the rise globally (e.g., US, Brazil, India).

Event: Mauritius held general elections that were broadly free but marred by criticism regarding campaign finance irregularities, misuse of state media, and delays in vote counting.

Impact: While institutions remained stable, this event prompted public calls for electoral reform and greater transparency.

2020 – Wakashio Oil Spill Protests and Democratic Accountability

Context: Global trend of climate-related political mobilisation and governance scrutiny.

Event: A devastating oil spill led to mass protests demanding government accountability.

Impact: Although not an electoral event per se, it led to calls for institutional reform, transparency in public service, and environmental justice—key components of a responsive democracy.

2023–2025 – Ongoing Electoral Reforms and Debates on Best Loser System

Context: Global debates on electoral fairness, minority rights, and post-ethnic representation.

Event: Mauritius engaged in consultations over reforming or abolishing the Best Loser System to modernise its electoral model.

Impact: While the system remained largely intact as of 2025, the debate signals a society willing to adapt and refine democratic mechanisms to meet contemporary values.

A Quiet but Enduring Democratic Evolution

Mauritius’s journey through the 20th and 21st centuries has been shaped not by dramatic revolutions or violent coups, but by deliberate reform, institutional strengthening, and civic engagement. Each electoral milestone—from suffrage expansions to innovative representation mechanisms—was both a response to internal realities and a reflection of global democratic currents. The island’s ability to absorb global democratic trends while tailoring them to its multi-ethnic society remains a testament to its democratic resilience.

CSV-style Dataset: Mauritius General Elections (1900–2025)

 Mauritius General Elections: 1900–2025 — A Democratic Evolution

Published on electionanalyst.com

Mauritius, a small island nation in the Indian Ocean, boasts one of the most vibrant democratic traditions in Africa. Though its early 20th-century political landscape was shaped by colonial rule, the island’s journey toward full democracy is a case study in peaceful transitions, coalition governance, and socio-ethnic balance.

 Colonial Years and First Franchise Reforms

Before 1948, elections in Mauritius were either non-existent or highly restricted. With the introduction of limited franchise in 1929 and further reforms in 1948, electoral politics began to take shape, dominated by working-class advocacy and the Labour Party’s mobilisation efforts.

 Universal Suffrage and the Road to Independence

The landmark 1959 election introduced universal adult suffrage, a major shift driven by mass agitation and British reforms. With overwhelming voter turnout (91%), it signalled the readiness of Mauritians for self-rule. The 1967 general election became a de facto independence referendum, narrowly won by the Labour-led coalition favouring separation from Britain.

Post-Independence Volatility and Coalition Politics

After gaining independence in 1968, Mauritius experienced a turbulent political decade. The 1982 victory of the radical MMM–PSM alliance marked the first peaceful change in government. However, instability led to successive snap elections in 1983 and 1987. Coalition politics became the norm, with power-sharing arrangements among parties like MSM, MMM, Labour, and PMSD dominating the scene.

Democratic Maturity and Modernisation

From the 1990s onward, the electoral landscape matured, embracing campaign financing reforms and increased transparency. The alternation of power between Labour and MSM-led alliances showcased Mauritius' democratic resilience. Despite occasional accusations of voter manipulation and campaign misconduct, elections have remained largely free and fair.

2025 and Beyond: Emerging Challenges

The upcoming 2025 elections will likely revolve around youth unemployment, climate change adaptation, and governance reform. With increased youth participation, digital campaigning, and a politically conscious diaspora, Mauritius is poised for yet another democratic milestone.

Mauritius offers a compelling narrative of colonial legacy transformed into democratic strength. Its electoral history—marked by high voter turnout, peaceful transitions, and coalition complexity—demonstrates how small island states can lead by example in democratic governance.

Global Electoral Trends by Decade: Mauritius 1900 to 2025

The history of Mauritius’ electoral system from 1900 to 2025 reflects not only the island’s own political evolution but also mirrors broader global trends in democracy, electoral innovation, and authoritarian shifts. This article provides a decade-by-decade summary of these global electoral patterns, placing Mauritius within the wider context of worldwide political developments.

1900s–1910s: Restricted Franchise and Colonial Control

Globally, the early 20th century was dominated by colonial rule and limited suffrage. Mauritius, as a British colony, had highly restricted electoral participation based on property and literacy, a trend common in many colonies and even parts of Europe.

Global trend: Elitist and restricted voting systems, with limited political participation outside the colonial or aristocratic elite.

Mauritius: Electoral system favoured Franco-Mauritian landowners and merchant elites; no universal suffrage.

1920s–1930s: Rise of Labour Movements and Expanded Suffrage

Following World War I, the world witnessed the growth of labour movements and calls for expanded electoral rights. Many countries began broadening suffrage, particularly for men, and women gained voting rights in several democracies.

Global trend: Democratization expands slowly; rise of socialist and labour parties.

Mauritius: Emergence of the Labour Party in 1936, led by Maurice Curé, reflecting global labour activism.

1940s: Post-War Democratization and Electoral Reform

The aftermath of World War II accelerated democratic reforms worldwide. Many colonies saw the first steps toward decolonisation and expanded political rights.

Global trend: Widespread introduction of universal adult suffrage; foundations for modern democracies laid.

Mauritius: Electoral reforms began expanding voting rights beyond property owners, increasing Indo-Mauritian and Creole participation.

1950s: Decolonisation and Political Mobilisation

The 1950s marked a wave of decolonisation, with many countries moving toward independence via electoral politics.

Global trend: Nationalist movements contest colonial rule via elections; many countries draft constitutions and hold pivotal elections.

Mauritius: Political parties like Labour led push for independence; increased electoral competition culminating in independence negotiations.

1960s: Independence and Establishment of Democratic Institutions

This decade saw many former colonies achieve independence and establish parliamentary democracies.

Global trend: New democracies emerge; electoral systems designed to balance diverse ethnic and political interests.

Mauritius: Achieved independence in 1968 after elections in 1967; multi-ethnic coalition governments formed.

1970s: Democratic Experimentation and Authoritarian Challenges

While many democracies consolidated, some countries faced coups or authoritarian rollbacks. Electoral systems were tested by social and ethnic tensions.

Global trend: Electoral violence and authoritarian takeovers in some regions; others strengthen democratic institutions.

Mauritius: Relative political stability but rising party fragmentation; democratic norms maintained.

1980s: Electoral Innovation and Political Pluralism

Electoral reforms, such as proportional representation and independent electoral commissions, became more common globally to enhance fairness.

Global trend: Introduction of electoral commissions, voter education, and multi-party systems.

Mauritius: Introduction of the "best losers" system to ensure minority representation, a notable electoral innovation.

1990s: Democratic Consolidation and Electoral Technology

Post-Cold War era marked a surge in democratisation, with greater emphasis on free and fair elections aided by emerging technology.

Global trend: Expansion of democratic governance; use of technology in voter registration and election monitoring.

Mauritius: Continued multi-party democracy with peaceful power alternation; electoral reforms improve transparency.

2000s: Electoral Transparency and Globalisation

Electoral processes increasingly embraced transparency, international observation, and digital tools to reduce fraud.

Global trend: Growth of international election observers; electronic voting trials in some countries.

Mauritius: Strengthened electoral commission independence; adoption of modern voter registration systems.

2010s: Challenges from Populism and Electoral Integrity Concerns

Globally, democracies faced challenges from populist movements, misinformation, and questions about electoral integrity.

Global trend: Rising concerns over fake news, electoral interference, and declining trust in institutions.

Mauritius: Robust democracy but debates over campaign finance and media impartiality; youth political engagement grows.

2020s (Up to 2025): Digital Elections and Calls for Reform

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated interest in remote voting options; electoral reforms focus on inclusivity and combating disinformation.

Global trend: Experimentation with remote and online voting; increasing demands for transparency and electoral reform.

Mauritius: Maintains traditional voting but explores digital voter education; political debates intensify over electoral fairness.

From restricted colonial elections in the early 1900s to a vibrant, pluralistic democracy today, Mauritius’ electoral history reflects many global trends. The island’s innovations—like the "best losers" system—demonstrate adaptation to its unique multicultural context, while global challenges such as misinformation and trust in institutions continue to shape electoral discourse worldwide.

Example: Analytical Explanation —

“Write like a political analyst explaining why the 2006 election in Mauritius was controversial.”

The 2006 general election in Mauritius marked a pivotal moment in the island nation’s political landscape, not least because of the intense controversies that surrounded it. While the election resulted in a victory for the Alliance Sociale coalition led by Navin Ramgoolam, the campaign period was fraught with allegations that cast a shadow over the electoral process.

One of the principal points of contention was the accusation of voter manipulation and undue influence. Opposition parties argued that the ruling Labour Party exploited state resources and media to their advantage, undermining the fairness expected in a mature democracy. Additionally, the campaign witnessed heightened ethnic tensions, with certain political rhetoric criticised for exacerbating divisions among Mauritius’ diverse population.

Moreover, the transparency of the Electoral Commission was called into question. Several observers noted delays and inconsistencies in the counting process, fueling suspicions of vote-rigging. Although these concerns did not lead to formal annulment or legal intervention, they sparked widespread debate about the integrity of Mauritius’s electoral framework.

In sum, the 2006 election controversy stemmed not from outright violence or fraud, but from systemic challenges in ensuring a level playing field amid a highly polarised political environment. This episode underscored the importance of strengthening electoral institutions to safeguard democratic legitimacy in Mauritius.

Example: Journalistic Summary —

“Summarise the 1900 Eastern European elections in a journalistic tone.”

The dawn of the 20th century saw Eastern Europe grappling with a complex and often turbulent electoral landscape. Across the region, emerging nations and empires experimented with varying degrees of political enfranchisement, yet democracy remained elusive for many.

In 1900, elections were predominantly limited by property qualifications, ethnicity, and social class, meaning the vast majority of the population remained disenfranchised. In countries such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman territories, electoral processes were often marred by irregularities, coercion, and restricted suffrage.

Political parties were embryonic and frequently aligned with nationalist or imperial interests rather than popular representation. Voter turnout varied significantly, hindered by low literacy rates and widespread political apathy born from systemic disenfranchisement.

Despite these challenges, the 1900 elections set the stage for the region’s gradual political awakening. They exposed the deep fractures within multi-ethnic empires and sowed the seeds for the dramatic upheavals that would follow in the decades ahead, culminating in revolutions and the redrawing of borders after the First World War.

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