Explaining the Electoral System in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025)-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

From colonial subjugation to multi-party democracy, the evolution of São Tomé and Príncipe’s electoral system mirrors its broader political transformation. The island nation, once a Portuguese colony, transitioned from authoritarianism to one of sub-Saharan Africa’s more robust democratic models. This article traces the structural and electoral developments in São Tomé and Príncipe from 1900 through to 2025, focusing on the types of voting systems used, representation mechanisms, and key political reforms.

1900–1974: Colonial Rule and Absence of Electoral Representation

Between 1900 and 1974, São Tomé and Príncipe was governed as a Portuguese overseas territory. During this period, there were no genuine democratic elections for local representation. The colonial administration was centralised and authoritarian, with officials appointed directly from Lisbon. Any electoral processes that did occur were severely restricted, with limited suffrage based on literacy, income, and colonial loyalty. The system, if it can be called that, was exclusionary and did not reflect the will of the indigenous population.

Electoral Characteristic:

Voting System: Non-democratic, limited colonial suffrage

Representation: Appointed governance, no universal suffrage

1975–1990: One-Party State and Controlled Elections

São Tomé and Príncipe gained independence in 1975, establishing a one-party state under the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP). Between 1975 and 1990, the country held elections within the framework of this single party. Although parliamentary and presidential elections were held, they were non-competitive and essentially served to legitimise pre-determined outcomes.

Electoral Characteristic:

Voting System: One-party confirmation, no real electoral competition

Representation: Candidates nominated by the MLSTP, with rubber-stamp elections

1991–2025: Multi-Party Democracy and Proportional Representation

In 1990, São Tomé and Príncipe adopted a new constitution, introducing a multi-party democratic system. The first free and competitive elections were held in 1991. Since then, both presidential and legislative elections have been conducted regularly.

Legislative Elections (1991–2025)

The National Assembly is unicameral, consisting of 55 members. Since 1991, deputies have been elected via proportional representation (PR) using closed party lists in multi-member constituencies. The d’Hondt method—a highest averages method—has been employed to allocate seats among the parties.

Key Features:

Voting Type: Proportional representation (closed list)

Electoral Formula: d’Hondt method

Constituencies: Multi-member (7 electoral districts)

Threshold: No formal national threshold, but practical limits apply due to district magnitude

This PR system has allowed for a relatively pluralistic legislature, with power oscillating between the MLSTP, the Independent Democratic Action (ADI), and several smaller parties and coalitions.

Presidential Elections (1991–2025)

Presidential elections are held separately and use a two-round system (runoff voting). If no candidate receives an absolute majority in the first round, the top two contenders face off in a second round.

Key Features:

Voting Type: Majoritarian (two-round system)

Electoral Cycle: Every 5 years

Term Limits: Two-term limit for the president

Summary Table: São Tomé and Príncipe Electoral System by Period

São Tomé and Príncipe's journey from colonial subjugation to multiparty democracy is reflected in the evolution of its electoral systems. Since 1991, the combination of proportional representation for legislative elections and a two-round majoritarian system for presidential polls has fostered relative political stability, democratic alternation of power, and a participatory political culture. Though challenges remain, especially around voter turnout and governance quality, the system’s design offers an inclusive framework for representation and accountability.

When Did São Tomé and Príncipe Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

São Tomé and Príncipe, a small island nation off the west coast of Central Africa, officially transitioned to a multi-party democratic electoral system in 1990, marking a significant departure from its earlier one-party socialist governance.

Historical Context: Independence and One-Party Rule (1975–1990)

Upon gaining independence from Portugal on 12 July 1975, São Tomé and Príncipe adopted a single-party system dominated by the Movimento de Libertação de São Tomé e Príncipe (MLSTP). This party, under President Manuel Pinto da Costa, governed under a socialist model, with no allowance for opposition parties or competitive elections. Political participation was limited, and elections were largely ceremonial, designed to legitimise the existing power structure rather than provide meaningful choice.

The Turning Point: 1990 Constitutional Reform

The major shift came in 1990 with the adoption of a new constitution through a national referendum held on 22 August 1990. This constitution explicitly permitted the formation of political parties and guaranteed civil liberties, effectively dismantling the one-party system. The transition was largely peaceful and driven by both internal demands for reform and broader global trends of democratisation following the Cold War.

First Multi-Party Elections: 1991

Following the constitutional change, São Tomé and Príncipe held its first multi-party legislative elections on 20 January 1991. These elections were considered free and fair by international observers. The opposition party, the Partido da Convergência Democrática – Grupo de Reflexão (PCD-GR), won a majority, defeating the long-ruling MLSTP. In the presidential elections held later that year in March, Miguel Trovoada—who had previously been imprisoned and exiled by the one-party regime—was elected president as an independent candidate.

Consolidation of Democracy

Since 1991, São Tomé and Príncipe has remained one of the more stable and democratic nations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Elections have been held regularly, and power has alternated peacefully between parties. Despite ongoing economic challenges and occasional political tensions, the country has generally upheld democratic principles, including political pluralism, press freedom, and judicial independence.

In Summary
São Tomé and Príncipe transitioned to a multi-party democratic electoral system in 1990, with the first competitive elections held in 1991. This peaceful and constitutional reform marked a definitive break from its previous one-party rule and laid the foundation for a democratic political culture that endures today.

National Election Results in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025): A Historical Summary

São Tomé and Príncipe, a small island nation in the Gulf of Guinea, underwent a complex political evolution from colonial rule to multi-party democracy. The period between 1900 and 2025 marks significant electoral milestones, including the first democratic elections post-independence and the establishment of a stable, if competitive, multi-party system.

Below is a decade-wise summary of general election results, including major parties, seats won, and voter turnout, where records are available.

 Colonial Period (1900–1974)

During Portuguese colonial rule, there were no nationally representative elections for São Toméans. Governance was dominated by Portuguese-appointed administrators. Political representation for the local population was virtually non-existent.

1975 Independence and One-Party State (1975–1990)

1975–1990: One-Party System Under MLSTP

The Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP) led by President Manuel Pinto da Costa ruled unopposed.

Elections during this period were largely symbolic with no opposition parties allowed.

Voter turnout figures were officially reported above 80%, but actual competitiveness was absent.

1977 National People's Assembly Election

Party: MLSTP (sole legal party)

Seats: All 52 seats

Voter Turnout: ~90% (officially reported)

Outcome: Unanimous support claimed for the MLSTP platform.

Democratic Transition & Multiparty Elections (1991–Present)

1991 General Election – First multi-party election

Main Parties:

MLSTP/PSD

Democratic Convergence Party (PCD)

Result:

PCD: 33 seats

MLSTP: 21 seats

Voter Turnout: ~76%

Outcome: Peaceful transition of power; PCD formed the government.

1994 Parliamentary Election

Result:

MLSTP: 27 seats

PCD: 27 seats

Independent candidates: 1 seat

Outcome: Deadlock led to coalition negotiation.

1998 Election

Main Parties:

MLSTP/PSD

Independent Democratic Action (ADI)

Result:

MLSTP/PSD: 31 seats

ADI: 16 seats

Others: 5 seats

Voter Turnout: 74%

Outcome: MLSTP formed government with a majority.

2002 General Election

Result:

MLSTP/PSD: 24

ADI: 23

MDFM–PL (supporting President Fradique de Menezes): 8

Others: 0

Outcome: Coalition negotiations followed; no clear majority.

2006 Parliamentary Election

Result:

MLSTP/PSD: 20

ADI: 11

MDFM–PL: 23

Others: 1

Outcome: Coalition led by MDFM–PL.

2010 Election

Result:

ADI: 26

MLSTP: 21

Others: 2

Voter Turnout: ~68%

Outcome: Patrice Trovoada (ADI) became Prime Minister.

2014 Parliamentary Election

Result:

ADI: 33

MLSTP: 16

Others: 6

Outcome: Clear ADI majority, further consolidation of multi-party democracy.

2018 Election

Result:

ADI: 25

MLSTP: 23

Others: 7

Outcome: Hung parliament; MLSTP formed a coalition.

2022 Parliamentary Election

Result:

ADI: 30

MLSTP/PSD: 18

Others (including MCI/PS-DB and coalition parties): 7

Voter Turnout: ~70%

Outcome: ADI returned to power with an outright majority.

 2025 Election (Projected or Recently Concluded)

As of July 2025, official results for the most recent general elections are either not yet published or were pending confirmation at the time of reporting. Early indicators suggest continued contest between the dominant ADI and MLSTP parties, with minor parties playing a kingmaker role.

From a one-party state to a competitive, if small-scale, parliamentary democracy, São Tomé and Príncipe's electoral history reveals a trajectory of institutional resilience. Voter turnout has consistently hovered around 65–75%, and peaceful transitions have become the norm since 1991. Despite occasional political deadlock, the nation's democratic system remains functional and vibrant.

A Political History of Elections in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025): Parties, Leaders and Outcomes

From the colonial era to its modern multi-party democracy, São Tomé and Príncipe has experienced a transformative electoral journey. This small island nation, nestled in the Gulf of Guinea, evolved from a Portuguese colony with limited political expression into a functioning democracy featuring peaceful transfers of power. This article offers a chronological overview of the major parties, key political figures, and electoral outcomes in São Tomé and Príncipe from 1900 to 2025.

Colonial Era (1900–1974): No Democratic Elections

From 1900 to 1974, São Tomé and Príncipe was a colony of Portugal. During this period, local populations had little to no democratic participation. The political system was authoritarian, with power concentrated in the hands of Portuguese-appointed colonial governors. There were no national elections or indigenous political parties.

The Rise of Independence and One-Party Rule (1975–1990)

Key Party:

Movimento de Libertação de São Tomé e Príncipe (MLSTP)
Leader: Manuel Pinto da Costa

After gaining independence on 12 July 1975, São Tomé and Príncipe adopted a one-party socialist system under the MLSTP, which had spearheaded the independence movement. Manuel Pinto da Costa became the first president, serving without electoral contest for 15 years.

Election Outcome:
No competitive elections were held. The MLSTP governed unopposed.

Democratic Transition and Multi-Party Elections (1991–Present)

1991 General Election – First Multi-Party Vote

Winner: Democratic Convergence Party (PCD-GR)

President: Miguel Trovoada (Independent, supported by PCD-GR)

This marked a turning point in São Tomé’s political history. The MLSTP lost power in the first free elections.

1996 Presidential Election

Winner: Miguel Trovoada (Independent) – re-elected

MLSTP: Manuel Pinto da Costa returned to contest but lost

2001 Presidential Election

Winner: Fradique de Menezes (Independent, later MDFM-PL)
He defeated Manuel Pinto da Costa once more, reflecting a shift toward new political leadership.

2006 Presidential Election

Winner: Fradique de Menezes (MDFM-PL) – re-elected

Main Opponent: Patrice Trovoada (ADI)

2011 Presidential Election

Winner: Manuel Pinto da Costa (Independent, former MLSTP leader) – returned to power

Runoff Opponent: Evaristo Carvalho (ADI)

2016 Presidential Election

Winner: Evaristo Carvalho (ADI)

Notable Event: Pinto da Costa boycotted the second round

2021 Presidential Election

Winner: Carlos Vila Nova (Independent, supported by ADI)

Main Opponent: Guilherme Posser da Costa (MLSTP)

This election was praised for its transparency and peaceful conduct. Vila Nova’s victory marked a consolidation of ADI's growing influence.

2022 Legislative Elections

Winner: Independent Democratic Action (ADI)

Prime Minister: Patrice Trovoada (returned to power)

The ADI gained a parliamentary majority, enabling Trovoada to form a government without coalition partners.

2025 Forecast and Emerging Trends

While detailed results of the 2025 election are pending, early indications suggest continued competition between ADI and MLSTP/PSD, with potential gains for smaller parties such as MCISTP. Carlos Vila Nova’s incumbency and ADI's legislative control position them favourably, though voter fatigue and economic issues may shape outcomes.

Major Political Parties (Post-1990)

São Tomé and Príncipe’s political history mirrors the broader arc of African decolonisation, socialist experimentation, and eventual democratic transition. Its politics have been characterised by peaceful transfers of power, competitive elections, and alternating leadership between established figures like Pinto da Costa, Trovoada, and Menezes. Though small in size, the nation has made substantial strides toward democratic maturity between 1900 and 2025, with promising signs for continued political development.

Electoral Violence and Irregularities in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025)

São Tomé and Príncipe, though often regarded as one of Africa’s most stable democracies since its transition to multiparty politics in 1990, has not been immune to electoral irregularities, political tensions, or disputes. This article outlines key instances of violence, irregularities, annulments, delays, and boycotts in national elections between 1900 and 2025.

Context: Democratic Transition and Stability

São Tomé and Príncipe gained independence from Portugal in 1975. For the first 15 years, it functioned as a one-party Marxist state. It wasn't until 1990 that the country introduced multiparty democracy. Despite its relatively peaceful political landscape, some elections have faced allegations of fraud, manipulation, or institutional tension, although large-scale violence has been rare.

Reported Electoral Irregularities and Tensions

1991 General Elections – Initial Challenges of Multiparty Democracy

The first multiparty election in 1991 was largely peaceful and praised by international observers.

However, logistical difficulties and lack of experience with multiparty systems led to minor organisational issues, such as incomplete electoral rolls and lack of transparency in some districts.

2001 Presidential Elections – Accusations of Fraud

Incumbent President Miguel Trovoada was succeeded by Fradique de Menezes, whose victory was contested by opposition groups.

The opposition alleged vote-buying and irregularities, particularly in rural regions.

No formal annulment occurred, but the credibility of the electoral commission was publicly challenged.

2006 Parliamentary Elections – Vote Count Delay

The 2006 legislative elections were marred by accusations of delays in vote tabulation and inconsistent results from some polling stations.

Though not violent, the delays stirred public anxiety, prompting calls for greater transparency in electoral procedures.

2011 Presidential Elections – Accusations of Bias

The opposition raised concerns over media bias and state influence favouring government candidates.

No significant violence occurred, but tensions were evident in debates around impartiality and campaign financing.

 Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections

Despite its reputation for peaceful democracy, São Tomé and Príncipe has witnessed elections that were postponed, partially boycotted, or annulled under specific circumstances:

Electoral Violence: Rare but Not Absent

São Tomé and Príncipe’s history is largely free of widespread political violence. However:

Post-election protests have occasionally occurred, particularly following disputed outcomes, such as in 2001 and 2016.

These protests were typically non-violent or low-level confrontations, involving public demonstrations, accusations in the media, and institutional deadlock rather than violent clashes.

While São Tomé and Príncipe has earned credit for democratic governance and relatively peaceful elections since 1990, the country has still experienced moments of electoral tension, administrative irregularities, and occasional boycotts or delays. Importantly, these issues have seldom escalated into systemic violence or authoritarian regression, allowing the archipelago to maintain its reputation as a democratic outlier in Central Africa.

As the 2020s close, international observers continue to emphasise the need for greater institutional reform, especially regarding independent oversight, voter education, and media impartiality, to preserve São Tomé and Príncipe’s democratic gains into the future.

Democracy Index & Reform in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025)

São Tomé and Príncipe, one of Africa’s smallest nations, has experienced a unique trajectory in terms of democratic evolution. From colonial rule to a relatively stable multiparty democracy, the archipelago has undergone significant reforms, punctuated by brief political instability but overall marked by commendable democratic resilience.

Early Period: Colonial Rule (1900–1975)

Throughout the early 20th century, São Tomé and Príncipe was a Portuguese colony with no electoral democracy for its indigenous population. The political system was strictly colonial and authoritarian, with all power centred in Lisbon. Elections held during this time were either non-existent or symbolic, with no local autonomy or participation by native Santomeans.

Transition to Independence and One-Party Rule (1975–1990)

Following independence from Portugal in 1975, São Tomé and Príncipe adopted a one-party socialist system under the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP). The Constitution of 1975 vested significant power in the presidency, and no multiparty elections were held during this period.

Key characteristics:

No formal political opposition

Appointed National Assembly

Centralised executive authority

Although the regime was relatively stable and non-violent, by the late 1980s, pressures for reform emerged, mirroring trends across Africa and the fall of Cold War ideological divides.

Democratic Reforms and Multiparty Elections (1990–2000)

In 1990, São Tomé and Príncipe underwent a democratic transformation. A new constitution legalised multiparty politics, established civil liberties, and introduced direct presidential elections.

Milestones:

1991: First free multiparty legislative elections; MLSTP lost to the opposition party, Democratic Convergence Party (PCD).

1991: Presidential election saw Miguel Trovoada elected in a competitive vote.

During this decade, São Tomé and Príncipe gained recognition as one of Africa’s more democratic and peaceful nations, despite economic challenges.

Democratic Consolidation with Some Volatility (2000–2015)

Although the country maintained regular elections and peaceful transfers of power, this period was marked by:

Frequent changes of government due to fragile coalitions

Presidential-parliamentary tensions

A brief military coup in 2003, which was resolved diplomatically

The Freedom House and Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) Democracy Index generally rated São Tomé and Príncipe as “Free” and a “Hybrid or Flawed Democracy”, citing strong electoral processes but weak governance and state capacity.

Notable reforms:

Greater transparency in electoral commission operations

International observation of elections

Judicial reforms to enhance rule of law

Recent Trends: Stability with Institutional Challenges (2015–2025)

From 2015 onwards, São Tomé and Príncipe continued to hold regular democratic elections. The peaceful transitions of power, particularly in 2016 and 2021, affirmed the country’s commitment to democratic norms.

However, persistent issues remained:

Low voter turnout in some elections

Public mistrust in political elites

Allegations of vote-buying and political clientelism

Weak separation of powers, with the presidency often clashing with parliament

Still, São Tomé and Príncipe remained among the more democratic Lusophone African countries, according to international indices.

Democracy Index Highlights (indicative trends):

A Quiet Democratic Success Story with Room for Growth

São Tomé and Príncipe’s path from colonial repression to multiparty democracy reflects a broader African narrative of reform, resilience, and challenge. While the country avoided prolonged authoritarian backsliding, its democracy remains vulnerable due to institutional fragility, economic dependency, and elite factionalism.

Nonetheless, its consistent electoral process, respect for civil liberties, and avoidance of prolonged conflict position it as a quiet success story in West African democratisation.

Major Electoral Reforms in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025): A Historical Analysis

São Tomé and Príncipe, a small island nation off the coast of Central Africa, has undergone a series of crucial electoral reforms since its colonial period through to the 21st century. From Portuguese colonial rule to democratic multiparty governance, the nation’s electoral framework has transformed significantly. This article traces the major reforms that shaped São Tomé and Príncipe's journey towards electoral democracy between 1900 and 2025.

Colonial Era (1900–1975): Absence of Electoral Rights for Natives

During the Portuguese colonial rule, São Tomé and Príncipe was administered directly from Lisbon, with minimal political rights granted to the local population. In the early 20th century, political participation was largely restricted to Portuguese settlers and elite mestiços (mixed-race individuals) through limited municipal councils. Voting was not universal, and suffrage was restricted by property and literacy requirements — reforms were virtually non-existent in this period.

Independence and One-Party Rule (1975–1990): Formation of a Centralised Electoral Structure

With independence on 12 July 1975, São Tomé and Príncipe adopted a one-party socialist model under the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP). The first major electoral restructuring came with the 1975 Constitution, which established:

A National Assembly elected through indirect and non-competitive processes.

Universal suffrage in theory, but without multiparty choice.

The abolition of colonial electoral laws.

Although the structure allowed for elections, the MLSTP controlled candidate selection, and all seats were filled without opposition. These early reforms were intended to consolidate post-independence unity but restricted political pluralism.

Democratisation and Political Liberalisation (1990–1991): The Foundational Reform

A pivotal turning point came in 1990, amid global waves of democratisation. São Tomé and Príncipe introduced sweeping constitutional reforms that ended single-party rule. Key changes included:

Legalisation of opposition parties.

Establishment of a multi-party electoral system.

Adoption of direct presidential and legislative elections through universal, equal, and secret suffrage.

Introduction of a proportional representation system for the National Assembly.

This culminated in the first free multiparty elections in January 1991, marking one of the most significant electoral reforms in the nation’s history and earning São Tomé and Príncipe praise as a model for peaceful democratic transition in Africa.

1991–2005: Consolidation of Democratic Processes

Following the 1991 reforms, São Tomé and Príncipe focused on improving electoral integrity and administration. Notable reforms during this period included:

Creation of an Independent Electoral Commission (Comissão Eleitoral Nacional).

Adoption of revised electoral laws, enhancing transparency in party registration, campaign financing, and voter registration.

Use of international observers to strengthen election credibility.

Introduction of biometric voter identification systems in the early 2000s to combat fraud.

These reforms helped stabilise the country’s electoral institutions, despite occasional political tensions and contested results.

Post-2005 to 2020: Enhancing Electoral Credibility and Gender Representation

In response to political polarisation and accusations of electoral irregularities, further reforms were introduced to enhance trust in the system:

Strengthening of the role and autonomy of the Electoral Commission, including more balanced political representation.

Legal frameworks to improve the transparency of campaign funding and media access.

Increased efforts to encourage women's participation in politics, though São Tomé and Príncipe still lags behind in gender parity.

Modernisation of electoral roll management, improving data accuracy and reducing manipulation concerns.

These changes were largely driven by domestic pressure and support from international partners such as the African Union and the European Union.

2021–2025: Digitalisation and Electoral Resilience

The most recent wave of reform has been focused on technology, accessibility, and electoral resilience:

Introduction of digital systems to track results and reduce delay in vote tabulation.

Expansion of diaspora voting rights, allowing São Toméan citizens abroad to participate more effectively in national elections.

Legal proposals debated in 2023–2024 to implement quotas for female candidates and to limit presidential term extensions, though not all were passed.

Ongoing debate around constitutional reform to improve the balance of powers between the presidency and parliament.

The 2021 presidential elections, won by Carlos Vila Nova, were praised for transparency, partly due to these newer digital and procedural safeguards.Conclusion: A Remarkable Democratic Trajectory

From colonial disenfranchisement to multiparty democracy, 

São Tomé and Príncipe’s electoral reforms have evolved remarkably. The transformation has been marked by:

A peaceful transition from authoritarianism to democracy.

A consistent effort to modernise and legitimise the electoral process.

A focus on inclusivity and transparency, albeit with room for progress in gender equality and institutional independence.

As of 2025, São Tomé and Príncipe remains one of the most politically stable and democratic countries in sub-Saharan Africa, largely due to the robustness of its electoral reforms.

A Comparative Study of São Tomé and Príncipe’s Electoral Systems from 1900 to 2025: Which Era Was More Democratic

From the colonial period to the modern democratic republic, the electoral evolution of São Tomé and Príncipe (STP) presents a telling example of how small island nations navigate the tides of democratisation. The period between 1900 and 2025 spans two dramatically different systems: one under Portuguese colonial rule, and the other as an independent multiparty democracy. This article compares the electoral structures across these two eras and assesses which was more democratic by examining suffrage, participation, representation, and institutional transparency.

Electoral System in 1900–1975: Colonial Non-Democracy

Prior to independence in 1975, São Tomé and Príncipe was a Portuguese colony. The island had no meaningful indigenous electoral system. Instead, political governance was entirely dictated by Lisbon, with colonial administrators appointed by the Portuguese government. Though Portugal itself underwent political changes—including the fall of the monarchy (1910), the First Republic (1910–1926), and the Estado Novo dictatorship (1933–1974)—these rarely translated into political rights for the people of São Tomé and Príncipe.

Suffrage: Restricted. Local São Toméans, especially of African descent, were largely disenfranchised. Voting was often limited to white settlers or assimilated elites (the “assimilados”) who met literacy and income requirements.

Political Participation: Virtually non-existent for the majority. Political parties were banned under the Estado Novo regime, and any local institutions lacked legislative power.

Representation: None. São Tomé and Príncipe had no sovereign political voice and was managed as a plantation-based economy by appointed governors.

Democratic Character: Authoritarian and colonial; elections—if held—were symbolic and exclusionary.

In sum, the electoral structure from 1900 to 1975 was not democratic by any standard. Political control was centralised, repressive, and racially hierarchical.

Electoral System in 1975–2025: Democratic Evolution

São Tomé and Príncipe gained independence on 12 July 1975, ushering in a new era of self-governance. Initially, the country adopted a one-party socialist state under the Movimento de Libertação de São Tomé e Príncipe (MLSTP). However, following domestic pressure and global democratic trends, STP embraced multiparty democracy in 1990.

Suffrage: Universal adult suffrage was established post-independence, and constitutionally guaranteed after the 1990 reforms.

Political Participation: Since 1991, São Tomé and Príncipe has conducted competitive multiparty elections. Citizens have had the right to vote in presidential, legislative, and local elections.

Representation: The National Assembly consists of 55 members elected via proportional representation. This system has enabled smaller parties to gain representation, enhancing political pluralism.

Electoral Integrity: While challenges such as delayed elections and low turnout have occurred, international observers (e.g. AU, EU, CPLP) have generally assessed STP’s elections as free and fair. The establishment of an independent National Electoral Commission strengthened democratic credibility.

Furthermore, peaceful transitions of power—such as in 2011 and 2021—demonstrate institutional resilience. Civil society and media freedom, although modest, have allowed for public accountability.

Key Reforms (1990–2025)

1990 Constitutional Referendum: Legalised multiparty politics and established term limits for the presidency.

1991 General Elections: First multiparty elections, widely regarded as free and transparent.

Electoral Law Amendments: Periodic legal updates enhanced transparency, registration processes, and gender representation.

Which Period Was More Democratic?

Without question, the post-1990 era represents a far more democratic period than the colonial epoch of 1900–1975. While no system is perfect—São Tomé and Príncipe still struggles with political fragmentation, limited voter turnout, and economic constraints—the electoral system from 1991 onwards offers participatory, representative, and institutionalised democracy.

In contrast, the colonial period was defined by authoritarian control, systemic disenfranchisement, and racial inequality. Democratic practices were not only absent—they were structurally suppressed.

Verdict: São Tomé and Príncipe’s electoral system from 1990 to 2025 is decisively more democratic than its pre-independence or early post-colonial counterpart. It serves as a case study of successful democratic transition in sub-Saharan Africa, albeit one still in progress.

First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century: Countries and Their Electoral Systems

The 20th century marked a significant global shift towards democracy, particularly in newly independent states and post-colonial nations. Many countries conducted their first democratic elections during this period, each adopting various electoral systems—ranging from proportional representation to majoritarian frameworks—based on political context, colonial legacy, or institutional influence. This article explores several key countries that held their inaugural democratic elections in the 20th century, highlighting the system under which they voted.

India – 1951-52 (First-Past-The-Post)

India, following independence from British rule in 1947, conducted its first general election in 1951-52. It adopted the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system, modelled after the British parliamentary structure. The elections were a landmark for being the largest democratic exercise at the time, involving over 170 million eligible voters.

South Africa – 1994 (Proportional Representation)

The end of apartheid led to South Africa's first democratic election in 1994, open to all racial groups. It adopted a closed-list Proportional Representation (PR) system to ensure inclusive political representation in a deeply divided society. The African National Congress (ANC) won a decisive majority under this system.

Ghana – 1951 (Majoritarian System)

Ghana (then the Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to hold democratic elections in 1951 under British colonial supervision. It used a majoritarian, constituency-based system, marking the rise of Kwame Nkrumah and the Convention People's Party (CPP).

Indonesia – 1955 (Proportional Representation)

Indonesia held its first democratic national election in 1955 after gaining independence from Dutch colonial rule. It used a Proportional Representation system to elect members to the Constitutional Assembly and the People’s Representative Council. The fragmented results reflected the country’s vast ethnic and political diversity.

Nigeria – 1959 (First-Past-The-Post)

In preparation for independence in 1960, Nigeria held its first parliamentary election in 1959 under the FPTP system, inherited from British colonial governance. The system was applied to a federal structure comprising multiple ethnic and regional groups, leading to a coalition government.

Pakistan – 1970 (Proportional Representation via Single Transferable Vote in Senate; FPTP in National Assembly)

Pakistan’s first direct national election was in 1970, using FPTP for the National Assembly and Single Transferable Vote (STV) for the Senate. The elections marked a brief democratic experiment before the 1971 civil war and eventual secession of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

Bangladesh – 1973 (First-Past-The-Post)

Following independence in 1971, Bangladesh conducted its first democratic elections in 1973 under the FPTP system. The Awami League secured a dominant majority in a parliament-based structure.

Namibia – 1989 (Proportional Representation)

Namibia’s transition from South African administration culminated in its first democratic election in 1989. The country adopted a Proportional Representation system under UN supervision, helping lay the foundation for inclusive governance.

Mozambique – 1994 (Proportional Representation)

Following a brutal civil war, Mozambique held its first multiparty election in 1994, adopting a Proportional Representation system. It marked a significant transition from one-party Marxist rule to democracy.

Timor-Leste – 2001 (Proportional Representation)

After gaining independence from Indonesian occupation, Timor-Leste (East Timor) held its first democratic election in 2001 to form a constituent assembly, using a Proportional Representation system to accommodate political pluralism in a post-conflict context.

Common Trends in Electoral System Choice

Most countries emerging from colonial rule or authoritarian regimes in the 20th century opted for Proportional Representation to encourage political inclusion and mitigate ethnic or ideological divisions. Conversely, nations with strong British colonial legacies often adopted First-Past-The-Post, reflecting Westminster-style parliamentary democracy.

The 20th century witnessed the global diffusion of democratic ideals, with many countries embarking on their first democratic electoral journeys. The choice of electoral systems was often shaped by colonial heritage, political compromise, or socio-ethnic complexity. These early elections laid the foundation for democratic evolution—sometimes stable, sometimes troubled—but always pivotal in shaping modern nation-states.

Timeline and Summary of Major Elections in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025)

São Tomé and Príncipe, a small island nation in the Gulf of Guinea, has transitioned from colonial rule to a one-party state and eventually to a multiparty democracy. The country’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 is marked by key democratic turning points, international influence, and growing voter participation. Below is a timeline capturing its major elections and pivotal political shifts.

Pre-Independence Era (1900–1974)

1900–1974 – Portuguese Colonial Rule
During this period, São Tomé and Príncipe was under the control of Portugal. Elections, where held, were not free or representative of the local African population. The colonial administration appointed local leaders and imposed direct rule.

Post-Independence and One-Party State (1975–1989)

12 July 1975 – Independence Declared
São Tomé and Príncipe gained independence from Portugal. The Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP) became the sole legal party.

1975–1990 – No Competitive Elections
The MLSTP ruled under a one-party socialist system. Presidential and legislative mandates were extended through internal party congresses rather than universal elections.

Democratic Transition and Multiparty Era (1990–Present)

1991 – First Multiparty Elections

Presidential & Parliamentary Elections (January & March 1991)

Key Event: Introduction of multi-party democracy.

Outcome: Miguel Trovoada won the presidency as an independent; the opposition party PCD-GR won a parliamentary majority.

Significance: First truly democratic elections, monitored internationally and deemed free and fair.

1996 Presidential Election

Winner: Miguel Trovoada re-elected.

Note: Emergence of multiple candidates, signalling a maturing democracy.

2001 Presidential Election

Outcome: Fradique de Menezes elected.

Issue: Allegations of vote-buying and influence from business interests.

2006 Parliamentary & Presidential Elections

Turnout: Moderate (around 60%).

Event: The MLSTP-PSD gained in parliament.

Presidency: Fradique de Menezes re-elected amidst economic challenges.

2011 Presidential Election

Event: Manuel Pinto da Costa, former one-party ruler (1975–1991), returned to power via democratic means.

Interpretation: Voter nostalgia for strong leadership amidst economic struggles.

2014 Parliamentary Elections

Winner: Independent Democratic Action (ADI) under Patrice Trovoada won a majority.

Impact: Shifted power away from historical parties.

2016 Presidential ElectionControversy: President Pinto da Costa boycotted the second round.

Result: Evaristo Carvalho (ADI) won amid claims of irregularities.

Observation: Weak opposition and electoral credibility questioned.

2018 Parliamentary Elections

Result: Hung parliament.

Event: Formation of coalition governments.

Significance: Showed political fragmentation and negotiation-based governance.

2021 Presidential Election

Winner: Carlos Vila Nova (ADI).

Highlight: Peaceful transition and high voter engagement.

Context: Held during a time of economic distress and public demand for reform.

2022 Parliamentary Elections

Winner: ADI regained legislative majority.

Impact: Strengthened Carlos Vila Nova’s governance platform.

Notable: One of the calmest elections in recent years, praised by observers.

Outlook to 2025

Upcoming 2025 Presidential & Parliamentary Elections

Expectations: Continuation of competitive multiparty politics.

Key Issues Likely: Youth unemployment, corruption, and economic dependency.

Potential Turning Point: Whether new parties or coalitions can challenge the traditional dominance of MLSTP and ADI.

From its colonial roots to an emerging democratic tradition, São Tomé and Príncipe’s electoral history reflects both fragility and resilience. Though challenges remain, particularly regarding economic equity and institutional reform, its relatively peaceful democratic evolution makes it a model of political maturity among small island states in Africa.

Major Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025)

Though small in size and population, São Tomé and Príncipe’s journey through the tides of democracy from 1900 to 2025 has been punctuated by pivotal global and domestic events—ranging from decolonisation to democratic reforms. Below is a curated list of major electoral events and political turning points that have significantly reshaped democratic governance in the island nation.

Portuguese Colonial Rule and the Absence of Electoral Participation (Pre-1974)

Until the Carnation Revolution in Portugal in 1974, São Tomé and Príncipe was a Portuguese colony governed by an authoritarian administration. During this period, local democratic institutions were non-existent, and political participation by the native population was virtually prohibited. The political system was dominated by colonial appointees, with little regard for representation.

The Carnation Revolution in Portugal (1974): Catalyst for Independence

The military-led Carnation Revolution on 25 April 1974 in Lisbon marked a watershed moment for São Tomé and Príncipe. Portugal’s abrupt move towards democracy and decolonisation directly influenced its African colonies. Within a year, São Tomé and Príncipe achieved independence on 12 July 1975, transitioning into a one-party socialist state under the leadership of the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP).

 Establishment of a One-Party State (1975–1990)

In the post-independence phase, MLSTP established a Marxist-Leninist one-party regime, effectively halting democratic pluralism. Electoral processes existed but were symbolic, with no competition. Citizens could vote, but only for MLSTP candidates approved by the state. This period reflected a global trend across several post-colonial African nations that prioritised centralised power over democratic representation.

 Wave of Democratisation Across Africa: Constitutional Reform (1990)

As the Cold War ended and democratisation swept across Sub-Saharan Africa, São Tomé and Príncipe responded to internal pressures and international norms. In 1990, the government passed a new democratic constitution, introducing multi-party democracy, freedom of expression, and competitive elections. This reform was inspired by wider global changes, including the fall of the Berlin Wall and international calls for good governance and human rights.

First Multi-Party Elections (1991): Return to Competitive Politics

In January 1991, São Tomé and Príncipe held its first free and fair multi-party elections, resulting in a peaceful transfer of power to the opposition Democratic Convergence Party (PCD). This event marked the formal birth of electoral democracy in the country, making it one of the few Sub-Saharan states at the time to achieve such a transition without violence.

Coups and Coup Attempts (1995, 2003): Fragile Democratic Gains

Despite democratic reforms, the country witnessed two attempted military coups that threatened democratic continuity:

August 1995 Coup: A short-lived coup removed the government for a week before international mediation restored constitutional rule.

July 2003 Coup Attempt: Dissatisfied soldiers briefly seized power citing economic hardship, but the coup collapsed within a week following negotiations.

These incidents highlighted the fragility of democratic institutions in a nation plagued by economic instability, despite maintaining formal electoral procedures.

Electoral Reforms and Political Maturity (2000s–2020s)

Between 2000 and 2025, São Tomé and Príncipe undertook multiple electoral and judicial reforms to reinforce its democratic framework:

Strengthening the National Electoral Commission.

Improved voter registration systems and biometric ID cards.

Enhancing judicial independence and conflict resolution mechanisms post-election.

Peaceful alternation of power between parties (e.g., in 2011, 2016, and 2021) further legitimised democratic governance.

The Global Push for Transparency and Digital Governance (Post-2015)

By the mid-2010s, global trends in transparency, anti-corruption, and e-governance began to influence São Tomé’s electoral policies. With support from international donors and partners, the country improved election monitoring and digital transparency tools, reducing electoral fraud and ensuring greater civic engagement.

2022 Parliamentary Elections: Resilience Amidst Unrest

The 2022 general elections, though largely peaceful, were followed by an alleged coup plot in November that led to deaths in military custody. While authorities claimed a coup had been foiled, civil society and international observers raised concerns about due process and human rights, reflecting ongoing tensions between security and democratic principles.

An Ongoing Democratic Journey

From colonial rule to a one-party state, and finally to a pluralist democracy, São Tomé and Príncipe's electoral history has mirrored broader global shifts—from Cold War geopolitics to modern-day democratic norms. While challenges such as economic fragility, military interference, and institutional weaknesses persist, the nation's consistent return to free elections and constitutionalism reflects a resilient—if imperfect—commitment to democracy.

References

Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Election Reports

Freedom House Country Scores

BBC News Archives

Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA)

United Nations & African Union Political Affairs Reports

???????? CSV-Style Table: General Elections in São Tomé and Príncipe (1900–2025)

The electoral evolution of São Tomé and Príncipe from 1900 to 2025 encapsulates a profound transition from colonial subjugation to one-party socialism and eventually to competitive multi-party democracy.

Between 1975 and 1990, the country operated under a one-party system dominated by the MLSTP, with extremely high official turnouts that were characteristic of socialist regimes. The 1991 general election marked a watershed moment, introducing a pluralist democratic framework and launching the PCD-GR into power through genuinely competitive elections.

Subsequent elections reflected cyclical shifts in governance, with the MLSTP and ADI trading power amid fluctuating voter participation, generally within the 65–75% range. Key themes in the post-transition era included oil diplomacy, youth unemployment, and anti-corruption drives.

Most recently, the 2022 general election witnessed the return of ADI amid public disillusionment with previous governments. Projections for 2025 suggest an emphasis on economic resilience and climate adaptation, although the political field remains fragmented.

This electoral timeline underscores the resilience and adaptability of São Tomé’s democratic institutions, even in the face of economic precarity and institutional vulnerabilities.

Global Electoral Trends in São Tomé and Príncipe: 1900–2025

1900s–1940s: Colonial Foundations and Limited Political Participation
During the early 20th century, São Tomé and Príncipe was under Portuguese colonial rule, with political power tightly controlled by the colonial administration. Electoral processes were either non-existent or highly restricted, with no genuine democratic participation for the local population. Political expression was largely suppressed, and the colonial regime maintained an authoritarian grip with minimal innovation in electoral systems.

1950s–1960s: Rising Nationalism and the Dawn of Political Mobilisation
The mid-20th century saw the gradual emergence of nationalist movements across Portuguese colonies, including São Tomé and Príncipe. Although formal elections remained limited or symbolic under colonial oversight, political mobilisation increased. This period marked the beginning of demands for self-determination and decolonisation, laying groundwork for future democratic change.

1970s: Independence and the Establishment of a One-Party State
São Tomé and Príncipe gained independence in 1975. However, the newly formed government established a single-party system dominated by the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP). Electoral processes were controlled and non-competitive, reflecting the era’s broader trend of post-colonial authoritarianism in many African states. Democratization was limited, and genuine electoral innovation was minimal.

1980s: Authoritarian Consolidation Amidst Global Cold War Pressures
Throughout the 1980s, São Tomé and Príncipe maintained its one-party regime, with little room for political pluralism or electoral competition. Globally, Cold War dynamics influenced governance models, and many African nations faced pressures between authoritarian control and nascent democratic reforms. In São Tomé and Príncipe, electoral rollbacks continued, with elections serving more as legitimising rituals than democratic exercises.

1990s: Transition to Multi-Party Democracy and Electoral Innovation
The global wave of democratization after the Cold War reached São Tomé and Príncipe, culminating in constitutional reforms introducing multi-party democracy in 1990. The country held its first multi-party elections in 1991, marking a critical step towards political pluralism. This decade saw the introduction of more competitive electoral systems, voter registration improvements, and international electoral observation, reflecting broader African and global trends towards democratization and electoral transparency.

2000s: Democratic Consolidation and Challenges
The early 21st century saw efforts to consolidate democratic gains through regular elections and institutional strengthening. However, challenges persisted, including political instability, limited party development, and concerns over electoral integrity. Nonetheless, São Tomé and Príncipe maintained a pattern of peaceful transfers of power, aligning with a global trend of gradual democratic deepening in small states.

2010s: Electoral Stability Amid Regional Democratic Backsliding
While some African countries experienced democratic backsliding during this decade, São Tomé and Príncipe largely preserved electoral stability and respect for democratic norms. Technological advances began influencing voter education and electoral administration, although resource constraints limited large-scale innovation. The country’s elections continued to be competitive, but political fragmentation and governance issues occasionally hindered democratic progress.

2020s: Continuing Democratic Challenges and Prospects for Innovation
From 2020 onwards, São Tomé and Príncipe faces ongoing challenges common to many emerging democracies, including corruption, political polarisation, and the need to strengthen electoral institutions. Globally, the decade is marked by increasing digitalisation of electoral processes and efforts to combat misinformation—trends that São Tomé and Príncipe is gradually engaging with. The future electoral trajectory will likely depend on continued institutional reforms and civic engagement amid a complex global political environment.

Write like a political analyst explaining why the 2006 election in São Tomé and Príncipe was controversial.

The 2006 general election in São Tomé and Príncipe stands out as a particularly contentious moment in the nation's democratic journey. Analysts argue that the controversy largely stemmed from a complex interplay of political fragmentation and procedural uncertainties. The election featured a crowded field of parties, many of which accused each other of irregularities and vote manipulation. Reports surfaced of delayed vote counting and alleged interference by local officials, undermining public confidence in the electoral process. Moreover, the tight race for parliamentary seats heightened tensions among rival factions, leading to disputes over seat allocations. This volatile atmosphere underscored the fragility of São Tomé and Príncipe’s democratic institutions at the time and highlighted the pressing need for electoral reforms to bolster transparency and fairness in future contests.

Summarise the 1900 Eastern European elections in a journalistic tone.

The elections of 1900 in Eastern Europe marked a significant, if uneven, step in the region’s political evolution. Predominantly dominated by imperial powers such as Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire, the electoral processes were characterised by limited suffrage and tightly controlled political participation. In many areas, elections served less as instruments of democratic choice and more as mechanisms for reinforcing existing autocratic regimes. Nevertheless, nascent nationalist movements and emerging political parties began to use these elections as platforms to voice growing demands for autonomy and reform. Despite widespread restrictions, the 1900 elections foreshadowed the gradual but inevitable shift towards modern political representation that would come to define Eastern Europe in the tumultuous decades ahead.

Disclaimer – ElectionAnalyst.com

ElectionAnalyst.com is a globally accessible, independent civic research and data analysis platform, authored by Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu, Global Policy Analyst, Politician, and Social Entrepreneur. This platform presents election-related information, systems, results, and democratic developments from 1900 to 2025 for all recognized countries, with the goal of fostering public education, research, and transparency.

1. Educational and Civic Purpose

All content on ElectionAnalyst.com is produced for:

Academic and policy research

Civic engagement and democratic awareness

Historical and journalistic reference

The website is not affiliated with any electoral commission or government agency, nor does it advocate for specific political ideologies, parties, or governments.

2. No Legal or Political Liability

All data is presented in good faith, derived from public records, historical archives, and expert analysis.

ElectionAnalyst.com and its author do not accept legal responsibility for any unintended inaccuracy, interpretation, or third-party misuse of data.

The platform does not intervene in any national electoral process, nor does it provide services for electoral litigation, consulting, or political campaigning.

3. User Responsibility and Contributions

Any public comment, suggestion, or submission remains the sole legal responsibility of the contributor.

Users and researchers must independently verify content before relying on it for official, legal, or governmental use.

4. Copyright Protection

All intellectual content on this site is the property of Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu and protected under:

© 2025 ElectionAnalyst.com | All Rights Reserved

Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works

EU Digital Services Act (DSA)

Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)

WIPO Copyright Treaty

Content may be cited for non-commercial use with attribution, but may not be copied, sold, scraped, or used for AI training without prior written consent.

5. International Legal Protection

This platform is legally shielded by:

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Freedom of Expression)

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), Article 10

European Union Fundamental Rights Charter

As such:

No foreign government, political party, or institution may impose legal threats, censorship, or data requests on this platform unless presented through verified, lawful international mechanisms such as EU data court orders or UN-recognised tribunals.

6. Content Challenges & Dispute Process

If any individual or institution believes that content is:

Factually incorrect

Unlawfully infringing

Violating rights

You may submit a formal complaint with valid documentation to:

legal@electionanalyst.com

Our legal team will review and respond accordingly under applicable international law.

Official Contact:
 Email: editor@electionanalyst.com
 Website Author: Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu (Analyst, Exiled Politician, International Business Law Specialist)

Email: dipu@countrypolicy.com