Electoral System & Structure in Armenia (1900–2025): A Historical Analysis

Armenia’s electoral system has undergone substantial transformation from imperial rule to Soviet incorporation, and eventually, to a sovereign republic with democratic institutions. The period from 1900 to 2025 reflects changes in sovereignty, governance structure, and the mechanics of voting—shifting from autocratic control to modern proportional representation.

1900–1917: Tsarist Russian Rule (Pre-Independence)

During the early 20th century, Armenia was part of the Russian Empire. There were no independent Armenian elections. Representation, where it existed, was orchestrated through the broader imperial institutions, such as the Russian Duma (from 1906 onwards). Voting was limited, indirect, and far from democratic, based on class, land ownership, and loyalty to the Tsar.

System: Imperial appointment or indirect limited franchise

Representation: Not proportional or democratic

Key Feature: No self-governance or independent Armenian electoral mechanism

1918–1920: First Republic of Armenia

Following the collapse of the Russian Empire, Armenia briefly gained independence in 1918. A parliamentary democracy was established, and the first multiparty elections were held in 1919.

System: Majoritarian elements with democratic principles

Representation: Aimed at parliamentary democracy

Key Feature: First free and direct elections; parties like the ARF (Armenian Revolutionary Federation) dominated

1920–1991: Soviet Period

Armenia became part of the Soviet Union in late 1920. Under Soviet rule, elections were held, but they were single-party and non-competitive.

System: One-party socialist system with indirect or symbolic voting

Representation: Controlled by the Communist Party

Key Feature: Elections were nominal, often with a single candidate per seat

Example – 1948 Soviet Armenia:
In 1948, the electoral system in Soviet Armenia mirrored the all-Union system. Candidates were selected by the Communist Party. Voters could technically reject a candidate, but such outcomes were virtually unheard of.

System: Symbolic, single-party

Representation: Neither proportional nor majoritarian in true terms

Outcome: Guaranteed Communist Party control

1991–1995: Post-Independence Transition

Following the collapse of the USSR, Armenia regained independence in 1991. The first presidential and parliamentary elections marked a return to genuine electoral practices.

System: Mixed electoral system introduced

Representation: Combination of majoritarian (single-member districts) and party-list proportional representation

Key Feature: Multi-party competition, but initial elections marred by organisational issues

1995–2015: Institutionalisation of Mixed System

Armenia adopted a mixed electoral system where members of the National Assembly were elected both through single-member constituencies (majoritarian) and proportional representation lists.

System: Mixed (FPTP + Proportional)

Representation: Roughly 50-50 between individual candidates and party lists

Key Feature: Intended to balance constituency service and party strength

2015 Constitutional Reform – Shift to Proportional Representation

A major reform came in 2015, transitioning Armenia into a parliamentary republic and replacing the mixed system with fully proportional representation.

System (Post-2017): Party-list proportional representation (closed list)

Thresholds: 5% for parties, 7% for alliances

Seats: Compensatory seats and gender quotas introduced

Key Feature: Designed to ensure coalition politics and broader representation

Recent Elections: 2018 & 2021 Snap Parliamentary Elections

In the wake of the 2018 “Velvet Revolution”, Armenia held snap elections using the new proportional system. These were widely regarded as free and competitive.

System: Fully proportional (with bonus seat mechanisms for stability)

Representation: Political pluralism, although dominant parties still emerged

Key Feature: Electoral Code refined to reduce vote-buying and manipulation

2025 Outlook

As of 2025, Armenia is expected to continue using its proportional representation system with improvements to ensure transparency and fair competition. Civil society plays a larger role in election monitoring, and there is increased emphasis on digital and diaspora voting.

Summary Table: Armenia’s Electoral System (1900–2025)

Armenia’s electoral journey from imperial subjugation to proportional representation marks a dramatic transformation. From the rubber-stamp votes of the Soviet era to competitive multiparty elections today, Armenia exemplifies a post-Soviet state striving for democratic consolidation through continuous electoral reform.

Armenia’s transition to a multi-party democratic electoral system can be traced back to the late 1980s and early 1990s, amid the collapse of the Soviet Union. Prior to this period, Armenia was one of the constituent republics of the USSR and operated under a single-party communist system dominated by the Communist Party of Armenia, a branch of the Soviet Communist Party.

From Soviet Republic to Sovereign Democracy

The democratic transformation began in earnest in 1988, spurred by the Karabakh Movement, which pushed for the unification of the Nagorno-Karabakh region with Armenia. This grassroots movement evolved into a broader demand for political reform and national sovereignty. It catalysed public mobilisation and brought new political voices into the public arena.

By 1990, Armenia held its first competitive parliamentary elections for the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR, which, although still under the framework of the Soviet system, allowed non-Communist candidates to stand. The elections resulted in a landslide for the opposition Armenian National Movement (ANM), led by Levon Ter-Petrosyan.

1991 – Birth of Independent Armenia and Multi-Party Elections

Following the declaration of independence from the USSR on 21 September 1991, Armenia formally embraced democratic statehood. That same year, Armenia held its first direct presidential election, in which Levon Ter-Petrosyan won with approximately 83% of the vote in a largely free and fair contest. This marked the formal beginning of the multi-party democratic system in the country.

The 1995 parliamentary elections were a milestone as they were conducted under a new post-Soviet constitution adopted by referendum. The new constitution codified multi-party democracy, the separation of powers, and civil liberties, laying the institutional groundwork for Armenia’s modern electoral system.

Challenges to Democratisation

Despite early promise, Armenia’s democratic journey has been marred by irregularities, electoral fraud, and political violence over the decades. The 1996 presidential election, for instance, was widely criticised for vote rigging and sparked mass protests. Similarly, elections throughout the 2000s were plagued by accusations of media bias, misuse of administrative resources, and suppression of opposition.

It was not until the 2018 “Velvet Revolution”, a peaceful mass protest movement led by Nikol Pashinyan, that Armenia experienced a significant democratic reset. The resignation of long-time leader Serzh Sargsyan and the subsequent snap parliamentary elections in December 2018, widely hailed as free and fair, re-energised democratic hopes and reinforced the country's commitment to transparent, pluralistic politics.

In summary, Armenia transitioned to a multi-party democratic electoral system during the critical period of 1990–1991, coinciding with the Soviet collapse and the assertion of independence. While the country has grappled with setbacks and hybridisation over the years, especially under entrenched elites, democratic institutions have endured, with significant reforms in recent years pushing the system towards greater openness and accountability.

Armenia’s journey through the 20th and 21st centuries has been marked by dramatic political transformations—from being a Soviet republic to an independent democratic state. Below is a summary of national-level electoral results, including key party performances, seat allocations, and voter turnout where available.

Pre-Independence Soviet Era (1920–1990)

During Soviet rule, Armenia functioned as the Armenian SSR. Elections were held regularly, but they were not competitive in the democratic sense. Candidates were typically approved by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).

 1977 Armenian SSR Supreme Soviet Election

Election Type: Soviet-style single-party approval vote

Main Party: Communist Party of Armenia (CPA)

Total Seats: 360

Seats Won (CPA): 360

Voter Turnout: ~99.8%

Notes: Only one candidate per constituency, all nominated by the CPA. Turnout figures were often inflated and reported near-perfect.

???????? Post-Independence Republic of Armenia (1991–2025)

1995 Parliamentary Election

Election Type: Mixed proportional and majoritarian

Main Parties:

Pan-Armenian National Movement (PANM) – 62 seats

Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) – 1 seat

Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) – Banned

Total Seats: 190

Turnout: 54.3%

Notes: First parliamentary elections under the 1995 Constitution.

 1999 Parliamentary Election

Unity Bloc (Miasnutyun): 62

Armenian Communist Party: 10

RPA: 7

Turnout: 51.6%

Notable Event: Parliament shooting in October 1999 killed PM Vazgen Sargsyan and Speaker Karen Demirchyan.

2003 Parliamentary Election

RPA (led by PM Andranik Margaryan): 33 (party list)

Armenian Revolutionary Federation: 11

Other parties/Independents: Significant share

Turnout: 52.6%

2007 Parliamentary Election

Republican Party of Armenia (RPA): 59

Prosperous Armenia Party (PAP): 25

ARF: 16

Orinats Yerkir (Rule of Law): 10

Turnout: 59.4%

2012 Parliamentary Election

RPA: 69

PAP: 37

ARF: 5

Heritage (Zharangutyun): 5

Turnout: 62.3%

Notes: Marked by complaints of vote-buying and pressure.

 2017 Parliamentary Election (First Under New Constitution)

RPA: 58

Tsarukyan Alliance: 31

Yelk Alliance: 9

ARF: 7

Turnout: 60.9%

Notes: First parliamentary-only system after constitutional reforms in 2015.

2018 Snap Parliamentary Election (Post-Velvet Revolution)

My Step Alliance (Nikol Pashinyan): 88

Prosperous Armenia: 26

Bright Armenia: 18

RPA: 0

Turnout: 48.6%

Notes: Triggered by peaceful revolution; collapse of old ruling elites.

 2021 Snap Parliamentary Election

Civil Contract (Pashinyan’s party): 71

Armenia Alliance (Robert Kocharyan): 29

I Have Honour Alliance: 7

Turnout: 49.4%

Notes: Held after 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war crisis.

2025 Parliamentary Election (Projected)

Likely Contenders:

Civil Contract

Armenia Alliance

New liberal coalitions

Trend: Continued polarisation and calls for reform.

Seats: 107 (fixed unless changed)

Expected Turnout: Around 50%

Notes: High-stakes election amid regional instability.

 Summary Table of Key Parliamentary Results (Post-1995)

Armenia’s electoral history reflects its broader political evolution—from rigid Soviet control to vibrant yet fragile democracy. The electoral scene remains dynamic, with new alliances frequently emerging in response to domestic upheavals and geopolitical shifts.

For detailed constituency-level data or presidential election outcomes, visit.

From tsarist rule to Soviet communism and eventually to a sovereign republic, Armenia's political evolution has been shaped by dramatic shifts in governance. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the major political parties, influential leaders, and election outcomes that have defined Armenia’s electoral landscape between 1900 and 2025.

Pre-Soviet Period (1900–1920): The First Taste of Democracy

Before Armenia became a Soviet republic, it briefly experienced democratic aspirations during the First Republic (1918–1920). In this short-lived period, two parties emerged as central political forces:

Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun): A nationalist socialist party that played a leading role in the First Republic.

Populist Party: A liberal-conservative faction that opposed Dashnak dominance.

Leaders:

Hovhannes Kajaznuni – Armenia’s first prime minister, representing the ARF.

Alexander Khatisian – Another prominent Dashnak leader.

Outcome:
The ARF dominated early elections in the First Republic but struggled to maintain control due to internal instability and external threats, including Turkish aggression and Soviet expansion.

Soviet Era (1920–1991): One-Party Rule

With Armenia’s incorporation into the USSR in 1920, the political landscape was monopolised by the Communist Party of Armenia, a branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).

Key Leaders:

Aghasi Khanjian – First Secretary during the Stalinist period.

Karen Demirchyan – A popular Soviet-era leader in the 1970s and 1980s.

Outcome:
Soviet Armenia did not hold competitive multi-party elections. All political activity was controlled by the CPSU, and political dissent was suppressed.

Post-Independence Elections (1991–2025): Multi-Party Democracy

1991: First Presidential Election

Parties: Non-party election.

Winner: Levon Ter-Petrosyan, an academic and dissident, became Armenia’s first President as head of the Pan-Armenian National Movement (PANM).

1995–2008: Transition and Turbulence

Major Parties:

Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) – A centre-right, nationalist-conservative party.

Armenian National Congress (ANC) – Led by former President Ter-Petrosyan.

Prosperous Armenia Party (PAP) – A centrist-populist force.

Notable Leaders:

Robert Kocharyan (President, 1998–2008) – Affiliated with RPA.

Serzh Sargsyan (President 2008–2018) – RPA leader.

Outcomes:

The RPA dominated parliamentary elections in 1999, 2003, 2007, and 2012, often amidst accusations of electoral fraud and authoritarianism.

2018: Velvet Revolution and a New Era

Parties:

Civil Contract Party (within the My Step Alliance)

Bright Armenia and Lusavor Hayastan – Liberal opposition parties.

Leader: Nikol Pashinyan – Former journalist and opposition figure who led mass protests against Serzh Sargsyan’s attempt to retain power.

Outcome:
Pashinyan's movement won a landslide in the 2018 snap elections. This marked a democratic turning point and a public rejection of oligarchic rule.

2021 & 2023 Parliamentary Elections

Parties:

Civil Contract – Pashinyan’s ruling party.

Armenia Alliance – Led by former President Robert Kocharyan.

I Have Honour Alliance – A conservative opposition bloc.

Outcome:

2021: Civil Contract won 53.9% of the vote despite backlash over the Nagorno-Karabakh war defeat.

2023 (local and municipal): Continued electoral dominance of Pashinyan’s party in key regions, though with signs of voter fatigue and opposition resurgence.

2025 Outlook

As of 2025, Armenia remains a competitive multi-party democracy. However, it faces challenges including:

Political polarisation between pro-reform and pro-Russian forces.

The fallout from the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

Ongoing democratic consolidation.

Key Contenders Expected:

Nikol Pashinyan (Civil Contract)

Robert Kocharyan (Armenia Alliance)

Emerging youth-led and diaspora-backed parties

Armenia’s political journey from imperial rule to post-Soviet democracy has been turbulent but transformative. While the Soviet era stifled pluralism, the post-1991 period has seen vibrant party competition, social movements, and democratic reforms – albeit punctuated by setbacks. As Armenia approaches the 2025 elections, its electorate remains engaged, its politics dynamic, and its democracy still evolving.

Electoral Irregularities, Violence & Disruptions in Armenia (1900–2025)

The electoral history of Armenia has been shaped by a turbulent political landscape, transitioning from imperial rule to Soviet domination, and eventually to independence in 1991. The period from 1900 to 2025 has witnessed numerous cases of electoral irregularities, violence, and political boycotts, particularly during the post-Soviet democratic era.

Reported Irregularities & Electoral Violence

1996 Presidential Election

Nature: Mass protests and violence
Details: The re-election of President Levon Ter-Petrosyan was marred by allegations of vote rigging and ballot box stuffing. Opposition candidate Vazgen Manukyan claimed victory, sparking large-scale protests in Yerevan. Security forces violently dispersed demonstrators, including a reported storming of the parliament building. The OSCE noted "serious irregularities."

2003 Presidential Election

Nature: Fraud allegations and ballot manipulation
Details: The re-election of Robert Kocharyan was contested by opposition leader Stepan Demirchyan. International observers, including the OSCE, cited widespread irregularities such as carousel voting, pressure on voters, and lack of transparency during counting. Though protests followed, they were suppressed without large-scale violence.

 2008 Presidential Election

Nature: Deadly post-election violence
Details: After Serzh Sargsyan’s declared victory, opposition leader Levon Ter-Petrosyan alleged massive fraud. Protests erupted in Yerevan, culminating in violent clashes on 1 March 2008. A state of emergency was declared, 10 people were killed, and hundreds were injured or arrested. This event remains one of the darkest moments in Armenia’s electoral history.

 2013 Presidential Election

Nature: Suspected manipulation and voter intimidation
Details: President Serzh Sargsyan won re-election amid reports of irregularities. Raffi Hovannisian, the main opposition candidate, rejected the results and launched hunger strikes and mass protests. While less violent than in 2008, the election was heavily criticised for lacking public trust.

2021 Snap Parliamentary Election

Nature: Tensions post-war, minor incidents
Details: Held following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan’s contested leadership, the election faced political polarisation and mistrust. Although the OSCE reported the election was generally well-administered, there were scattered reports of intimidation, disinformation, and isolated scuffles between party supporters.

Annulled, Delayed or Boycotted Elections

Armenia’s electoral record reflects a struggle between democratic aspirations and entrenched power dynamics. While elections in the Soviet era were nominal exercises, the post-independence period has been marked by both progress and repeated setbacks—ranging from disputed outcomes and systemic manipulation to violent repression. Reforms since the Velvet Revolution (2018) have improved transparency, but concerns about democratic resilience remain, especially under pressure from regional conflict and internal political fragmentation.

Armenia’s journey toward electoral democracy between 1900 and 2025 is marked by three distinct phases: Tsarist-Russian and Soviet control (1900–1991), post-Soviet democratisation efforts (1991–2008), and electoral reform with democratic backsliding and recovery (2008–2025). While Armenia has made progress, its democracy has remained fragile, often influenced by regional tensions, domestic power struggles, and public dissent.

 1900–1991: No Electoral Democracy under External Rule

1900–1917: Under Tsarist Russian rule, Armenians had limited political agency. No independent Armenian elections were held.

1918–1920: The short-lived First Republic of Armenia conducted its only relatively free elections in 1919 under a parliamentary system dominated by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF/Dashnaksutyun).

1920–1991: Under Soviet rule, Armenia functioned as a one-party state. Elections were held, but they were neither free nor competitive. The Communist Party of Armenia monopolised all state structures, and voting was symbolic rather than democratic.

Reform status:  No democratic reforms under Soviet rule.

 1991–2008: Early Post-Independence & Electoral Experimentation

1991: Armenia declared independence from the USSR. The first presidential election was held in October 1991, electing Levon Ter-Petrosyan. While initially hopeful, electoral standards were not fully in line with democratic norms.

1995–1999: Armenia transitioned to a semi-presidential system with a new constitution. Parliamentary elections were introduced, but vote-rigging, media bias, and a weak judiciary remained problematic.

2003–2008: Elections during this period were increasingly criticised by international observers, including OSCE and Transparency International, for fraud, misuse of administrative resources, and voter intimidation.

Democracy Index Rating (approx.):
  Partly Free (Freedom House: ~4.5/7; Economist Intelligence Unit: N/A until 2006 – rated ~5.0/10)

Reform status: Attempted reforms, limited impact. Electoral commissions lacked independence.

2008–2018: Authoritarian Drift and Civic Discontent

2008 Presidential Election: Marked a turning point. Massive protests followed the controversial victory of Serzh Sargsyan. The government responded with violence, leading to 10 deaths in Yerevan.

2013: Persistent electoral malpractice further dented public trust. Observers noted ballot stuffing and voter list manipulations.

2015 Constitutional Referendum: Shifted Armenia to a parliamentary system. Critics claimed it aimed to prolong Republican Party rule rather than enhance democracy.

Democracy Index Rating:
  Authoritarian leanings (Economist Intelligence Unit: ~4.0–4.5/10)

Backsliding alert:  Restrictive laws, entrenched elites, and weakened checks and balances.

 2018–2025: Democratic Breakthrough and Reform

2018 Velvet Revolution: Led by Nikol Pashinyan, mass protests overthrew the ruling elite. Early elections in December 2018 were widely praised as the freest in Armenia’s history. Pashinyan’s "My Step Alliance" secured a strong mandate.

2021 Parliamentary Election: Held amid post-war instability with Azerbaijan, but still met international standards.

Ongoing Reforms (2019–2024):

Electoral Code modernised

Media freedom expanded

Judicial reforms initiated, although politicisation concerns remained

Democracy Index Rating (2022–2025):
  Fluctuating but improved

Freedom House (2023): "Partly Free" → "Transitional or Hybrid Regime"

Economist Intelligence Unit (2024): ~5.6/10

Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem): Shows improved electoral integrity but weaknesses in judicial independence and rule of law.

Reform status: Positive momentum, but institutions remain vulnerable.

 Summary Table: Armenia’s Democratic Standing (Key Years)

Between 1900 and 2025, Armenia’s democratic development has been nonlinear. From imperial subjugation to Soviet totalitarianism, followed by contested post-Soviet elections and finally a democratic resurgence after 2018, Armenia remains a transitional democracy. While it has made significant gains, its electoral system, judiciary, and political institutions require continued reform to prevent regression.

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Armenia’s electoral journey, particularly since gaining independence in 1991, has been marked by a gradual yet determined shift toward democratic governance. While no formal electoral structure existed under Tsarist Russia or the Soviet Union prior to independence, significant reforms from the 1990s onward shaped Armenia’s current political landscape. This article outlines the major electoral reforms introduced in Armenia from 1900 to 2025, contextualising them within broader political and institutional developments.

 Pre-Independence Period: Soviet Electoral Framework (1920–1990)

Under Soviet rule, Armenia operated within a one-party system dominated by the Communist Party. Elections during this period were largely symbolic, with pre-approved candidates and no genuine competition. Reforms were minimal and centrally controlled from Moscow.

 1991: Introduction of Competitive Elections

Armenia’s first multi-party presidential election in October 1991 was a landmark. Following independence from the USSR, Armenia adopted a presidential system with direct voting. Levon Ter-Petrosyan was elected as the country’s first president in a relatively competitive, albeit imperfect, electoral contest.

1995: Adoption of the Constitution and Mixed Electoral System

The 1995 Constitution laid the groundwork for institutional democracy, including the formation of the National Assembly. That same year, Armenia adopted a mixed electoral system, combining single-member majoritarian districts with proportional representation.

150 seats were split: 75 by proportional party list and 75 by individual constituencies.

This reform aimed to strike a balance between local representation and party strength, though it often favoured ruling coalitions.

2005 Constitutional Referendum: Electoral Oversight Reforms

In November 2005, a constitutional referendum introduced crucial amendments:

Increased parliamentary powers to counterbalance presidential authority.

Strengthening of the Central Electoral Commission (CEC).

Enhanced legal framework for political pluralism and election monitoring.

Although marred by allegations of fraud, these reforms laid legal foundations for improving electoral transparency.

2011 Electoral Code Reform

Armenia passed a new Electoral Code in May 2011, replacing the 1999 version. Key provisions included:

Introducing biometric voter registration technologies.

Strengthening campaign finance rules and transparency.

Formalising rights for local and international election observers.

Simplifying dispute resolution mechanisms in electoral processes.

This reform responded to persistent criticisms from OSCE/ODIHR about ballot-stuffing and voter list inflation.

 2015 Constitutional Reform: Shift to Parliamentary System

Perhaps the most significant structural reform came in December 2015, when a national referendum approved shifting Armenia from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary republic.
Key impacts:

Abolished direct presidential elections (from 2018 onward).

The president became a largely ceremonial figure elected by Parliament.

Executive power was now concentrated in the Prime Minister, who is selected by the parliamentary majority.

The Electoral Code was revised to adopt a fully proportional system for the National Assembly.

These reforms were implemented amid controversial conditions but reshaped Armenia’s democratic institutions.

 2017 Electoral Reform Package (Post-Constitutional Shift)

Ahead of the April 2017 parliamentary elections, Armenia implemented changes to align with its new constitutional model:

Proportional representation only, with thresholds:

5% for parties,

7% for alliances.

A “rating system” or open list component allowed voters to influence individual candidate rankings.

Introduced gender quotas requiring at least 25% female candidates on party lists.

 2018 Velvet Revolution & Post-Revolution Electoral Law Reform

Following the 2018 Velvet Revolution, led by Nikol Pashinyan, Armenia accelerated democratic reforms:

Snap elections in December 2018 under a reformed code saw unprecedented competition and a landslide victory for Pashinyan’s Civil Contract party.

Efforts were made to ensure cleaner electoral rolls, greater media access, and neutrality of law enforcement during the campaign.

2021 Electoral Code Amendments

After political turmoil surrounding the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, snap parliamentary elections were held in June 2021 under further amended laws:

The rating system was abolished, returning to closed party lists to simplify voting.

National thresholds were lowered:

4% for parties,

6% for alliances, to foster pluralism.

Strengthened the role of the CEC in training, voter education, and anti-fraud mechanisms.

 Future Reforms (Up to 2025)

While no major structural reforms occurred after 2021, ongoing discussions include:

Lowering the voting age to 17.

Digital voting pilots, particularly for diaspora Armenians.

Expanding electoral access for persons with disabilities.
These proposals aim to modernise participation and reflect growing civic engagement in Armenia.

From post-Soviet liberalisation to post-revolution democratisation, Armenia’s electoral reforms have reflected both domestic struggles and democratic aspirations. While challenges around electoral integrity and political polarisation persist, the trajectory since 1991 shows a country steadily reshaping its institutions to reflect the will of its people.

From early 20th-century authoritarianism to 21st-century democratic consolidation, both Argentina and Armenia underwent profound political shifts. However, the paths each nation took to democratic governance varied significantly—shaped by distinct regional pressures, historical legacies, and institutional designs. This article compares the electoral systems of Argentina and Armenia across the 1900–2025 period, with a focus on democratic quality, inclusivity, competition, and integrity.

Historical Backdrop

???????? Argentina (1900–2025)

Early 20th century: Dominated by oligarchic rule under restricted suffrage.

1912 Sáenz Peña Law introduced universal, secret, and compulsory male suffrage, establishing the foundations of electoral democracy.

Military coups in 1930, 1943, 1955, 1966, and 1976 disrupted democratic processes.

Since 1983, Argentina has maintained uninterrupted democratic elections with competitive multiparty systems.

???????? Armenia (1900–2025)

Until 1991: Part of the Soviet Union (Armenian SSR), where elections were largely symbolic under single-party rule.

Post-independence (1991 onward): Transitioned to a multiparty parliamentary democracy, but with persistent electoral irregularities.

Since the Velvet Revolution (2018), democratic reforms have gained momentum, though still subject to internal and external pressures.

 Electoral System Structure

Electoral Performance Over Time

Argentina

1930–1983: Electoral democracy frequently interrupted by coups.

Post-1983: Competitive elections with peaceful alternations of power.

Electoral Institutions: Independent Electoral Court and robust party system.

Inclusivity: Female suffrage in 1947; gender quotas introduced in the 1990s and strengthened.

Armenia

1991–2018: Elections often marred by vote-buying, media control, and weak opposition.

2018 Velvet Revolution: Brought increased transparency and reduced state interference.

2021 Elections: Rated as largely competitive, but polarisation and misinformation persist.

Electoral Reform: Shift to a fully proportional system with gender quota (at least 30%).

 Voter Turnout Trends

Note: Argentina enforces compulsory voting, hence higher turnout levels.

 Institutional Democracy Assessment

 Verdict: Which Was More Democratic?

Argentina’s electoral system—despite periodic authoritarian setbacks in the 20th century—emerged post-1983 as a model of democratic continuity in Latin America. Its electoral laws, high turnout (boosted by compulsory voting), and regular leadership changes underscore its democratic strength.

Armenia, by contrast, was hindered by decades of Soviet authoritarianism and a difficult post-Soviet transition. Although significant democratic gains followed the 2018 revolution, Armenia's system still contends with challenges in institutional trust, media independence, and political stability.

 Conclusion: Argentina has had a more democratic electoral system than Armenia overall, particularly in the post-1980s era. However, Armenia has made impressive democratic strides in recent years, and the coming elections will be a crucial test of its democratic resilience.

The 20th century was an era of remarkable political transformation. As colonial empires crumbled, autocracies gave way to electoral competition, and new states emerged from the ashes of war, the century witnessed a wave of first democratic elections. Below is a chronological exploration of countries that held their first democratic elections during this period, with a particular focus on the electoral systems employed and the context of each shift.

1900–1918: Early Pioneers and Wartime Transitions

Norway (1905): After dissolving its union with Sweden, Norway held its first democratic elections using proportional representation (PR) for its parliament (Storting), which it adopted in 1919.

Finland (1907): Following Russian reforms, Finland introduced universal suffrage for both men and women and elected a parliament via open-list proportional representation—a global first for women's full electoral rights.

1918–1945: Post-War Democratisation and Collapse

Germany (1919): After WWI and the fall of the Kaiser, the Weimar Republic held elections under a pure proportional representation system—a model later critiqued for enabling political fragmentation.

Austria (1920): After the Austro-Hungarian Empire's collapse, Austria’s democratic elections were held under PR, reflecting a parliamentary democracy.

Czechoslovakia (1920): One of Europe’s most successful interwar democracies, Czechoslovakia used a list PR system, encouraging pluralism in a diverse state.

Ireland (1922): The Irish Free State held its first democratic election using Single Transferable Vote (STV)—a form of proportional representation within multi-member constituencies.

1945–1960: Decolonisation and Cold War Beginnings

India (1951–52): The world’s largest democracy began its electoral journey using first-past-the-post (FPTP) in single-member constituencies—still in use today.

Ghana (1951): The first British colony in Africa to hold competitive elections. Ghana used FPTP in a Westminster-style setup.

Indonesia (1955): Post-independence Indonesia’s first election used proportional representation—although democratic rule was soon undermined by Sukarno’s Guided Democracy.

South Korea (1948): Under US occupation, South Korea held its first presidential and parliamentary elections using plurality voting (FPTP).

 1960s–1980s: Post-Colonial Democratic Births

Kenya (1963): Following independence from Britain, Kenya used FPTP for parliamentary elections—a legacy of British rule.

Botswana (1965): One of Africa’s most consistent democracies, Botswana’s first elections employed FPTP and led to a stable Westminster-style parliamentary system.

Papua New Guinea (1977): The country adopted limited preferential voting, a preferential system similar to instant-runoff voting.

Portugal (1975): After the fall of Salazar's dictatorship, the first free elections used PR, establishing a parliamentary democracy.

 1989–2000: Cold War Collapse and Democratic Expansion

Poland (1989): The first semi-free elections post-communism were held under a mixed-member system combining PR and single-member constituencies.

Namibia (1989): Under UN supervision, Namibia used PR for its first democratic elections after independence from South Africa.

South Africa (1994): The end of apartheid brought the first universal suffrage elections using party-list proportional representation—ensuring inclusive representation.

Mongolia (1990): Transitioning from a communist system, Mongolia’s first multi-party elections used a two-round system for presidential races and plurality voting for parliamentary seats.

Systems Reflect Contexts

While first-past-the-post dominated former British colonies, many European and Latin American countries opted for proportional representation, often in response to social diversity or a desire for consensus governance. The type of electoral system adopted at the first democratic moment often shaped the durability and character of democratic governance.

As the 21st century dawned, nearly every country had held some form of electoral contest—yet the quality, fairness, and competitiveness of these elections continue to vary widely. Understanding each nation's first democratic step provides valuable insight into how history, geography, and legacy influence modern electoral landscapes.

Timeline of Major Elections in Armenia (1900–2025)

Key Political Events and Turning Points

1900–1917: Pre-Soviet Era and Early Political Activity

Context: During the early 20th century, Armenia was part of the Russian Empire. Political life was limited, with emerging nationalist and socialist movements. There were no nationwide elections as understood today, but local and regional political activism set the stage for future independence.

1918 – First Democratic Elections after Independence

May 1919: Following the declaration of the First Republic of Armenia in 1918 after the collapse of the Russian Empire, parliamentary elections were held.

Significance: This was Armenia’s first experience with democratic elections. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun) won a majority, establishing a parliamentary democracy. However, the young republic faced constant external threats and internal challenges.

1920 – Sovietisation and Loss of Independence

December 1920: Soviet forces invaded Armenia, ending the First Republic. Armenia was incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Impact on elections: Independent elections were abolished, replaced by Soviet-controlled appointments and limited electoral processes under one-party rule.

1920–1990: Soviet Era Elections

Nature: Elections in Soviet Armenia were tightly controlled, with the Communist Party dominating political life. Elections were mostly formalities to endorse preselected candidates.

Notable: Periodic elections to the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR occurred, but these did not represent genuine democratic competition.

1990 – Move Towards Independence and Multi-Party Elections

May 1990: Armenia held its first multi-party parliamentary elections in decades, amid the collapse of Soviet power. The Pan-Armenian National Movement won a majority.

Significance: This marked a critical turning point as Armenia transitioned from Soviet rule to independence.

1991 – Declaration of Independence and Presidential Election

September 1991: Armenia officially declared independence from the Soviet Union following a national referendum.

October 1991: Levon Ter-Petrosyan was elected as Armenia’s first President in a popular vote.

Importance: These events laid the foundation for Armenia’s new political system.

1995 – Adoption of the New Constitution and Parliamentary Elections

July 1995: Armenia adopted a new constitution establishing a semi-presidential system.

June 1995: Parliamentary elections were held under the new constitution. The Pan-Armenian National Movement retained control but faced increasing opposition.

Political dynamics: The elections saw the rise of opposition parties and greater political pluralism.

1998 – Presidential Election and Political Change

March 1998: Robert Kocharyan was elected President after Levon Ter-Petrosyan resigned amid political crisis.

Turning point: The election reflected a shift in political power and the strengthening of new elites.

2003 – Parliamentary and Presidential Elections with Growing Contestation

May 2003: Parliamentary elections took place, marked by opposition allegations of electoral fraud.

February 2003: Robert Kocharyan re-elected as President.

Key issue: Concerns about electoral integrity began to fuel public protests and political unrest.

2008 – Presidential Election Crisis

February 2008: Serzh Sargsyan was elected President amid widespread allegations of vote rigging.

Aftermath: Opposition protests were violently suppressed, resulting in casualties. A state of emergency was declared.

Significance: This election highlighted deep political divisions and challenges to democratic governance.

2012 – Parliamentary Elections and Continued Political Dominance

May 2012: Parliamentary elections were held; the ruling Republican Party secured a majority amid criticism from international observers regarding fairness and media freedom.

Trend: The Republican Party consolidated power, while opposition parties remained fragmented.

2013 – Presidential Election and Peaceful Transition

February 2013: Serzh Sargsyan was re-elected President. The election was generally peaceful but criticised for lack of genuine competition.

Development: Sargsyan’s second term continued Republican dominance.

2017 – Parliamentary Elections under New Electoral Code

April 2017: Parliamentary elections introduced proportional representation with thresholds, aiming to improve representation.

Result: The Republican Party won again, but opposition showed signs of reorganisation.

2018 – The Velvet Revolution and Snap Parliamentary Elections

April 2018: Mass protests, known as the Velvet Revolution, forced Serzh Sargsyan to resign after he tried to extend his rule via Prime Ministership.

June 2018: Snap parliamentary elections were held. Nikol Pashinyan’s Civil Contract party won a landslide victory.

Turning point: Marked a democratic breakthrough and a new era of political reform.

2021 – Parliamentary Elections amid Conflict Aftermath

June 2021: Early parliamentary elections were held following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and political crisis.

Outcome: Nikol Pashinyan’s party retained power but with a reduced majority, reflecting public division over war consequences.

Significance: Elections tested the resilience of Armenia’s young democracy.

2025 – Upcoming Elections and Future Prospects

Expected: Presidential and local elections are anticipated to further shape Armenia’s political landscape.

Outlook: Challenges remain, including democratic consolidation, regional security, and economic development.

Summary

Armenia’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 traces a journey from early 20th-century nationalist struggles through Soviet authoritarianism to an independent democratic state. Key turning points include the 1919 first republic elections, the collapse of Soviet control in 1990, the 2018 Velvet Revolution, and ongoing efforts to strengthen democratic institutions amid geopolitical challenges.

Over the past century and a quarter, the global democratic landscape has undergone seismic shifts—triggered not just by elections themselves but by revolutions, coups, reforms, and transitions. From the fall of empires to post-colonial awakenings, and from Cold War divides to the digital age, key moments have reshaped how power is contested and legitimised across the world. Below is a timeline of some of the most consequential electoral events and reforms from 1900 to 2025.

1900–1945: Empires Fall, Republics Rise

1905 Russian Revolution – A mass uprising forced Tsar Nicholas II to grant limited parliamentary reforms and the creation of the Duma, sowing seeds for later democratic upheaval.

1918–1919 Post-WWI Reforms – The collapse of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires triggered the rise of new republics and universal suffrage across Europe.

1920 U.S. Women’s Suffrage – The 19th Amendment granted American women the right to vote, inspiring suffrage movements globally.

1933 Nazi Seizure of Power (Germany) – Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor, followed by the Reichstag Fire Decree and Enabling Act, marked a democratic collapse via legal mechanisms.

Spanish Second Republic (1931) – A brief but landmark experiment in democratic governance, later overturned by civil war and Franco’s dictatorship.

Japan’s Electoral Reform (1925) – Expanded suffrage to all adult men, but democratic gains were rolled back by militarist rule in the 1930s.

 1945–1960: Post-War Democratic Reconstruction

1945–49 Allied Occupations (Germany, Japan, Italy) – Democratisation under Allied control led to foundational reforms in electoral systems and constitutions.

Indian Independence & Constitution (1947–1950) – India emerged as the world’s largest democracy with a parliamentary system and universal adult suffrage.

1947–1958 Decolonisation in Africa & Asia – Dozens of countries gained independence; many held founding elections but with mixed democratic outcomes.

1946–1952 Philippines, South Korea, Indonesia Elections – Early post-colonial experiments with electoral democracy in Southeast Asia.

1952 Egyptian Revolution – Military-led coup ended monarchy and ushered in decades of autocratic rule despite nominal elections.

 1960–1989: Cold War, Coups & Counter-Revolutions

1960s Civil Rights & Voting Acts (USA) – Landmark reforms dismantled voter suppression in the American South, ensuring broader racial participation.

1974 Carnation Revolution (Portugal) – Peaceful military coup ended decades of dictatorship, leading to rapid democratisation.

1975–1990 Latin America’s Democratic Wave – Countries such as Argentina (1983), Brazil (1985), and Chile (1989) transitioned from military rule to democracy.

1986 People Power Revolution (Philippines) – Mass protests ousted Ferdinand Marcos, restoring democracy under Corazon Aquino.

1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall – Symbolised the collapse of Soviet-backed regimes and the start of electoral transitions in Eastern Europe.

 1990–2005: Democratic Expansion and Post-Cold War Reforms

1990s Eastern Europe Elections – Nations like Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic institutionalised multiparty democracy following communism's collapse.

1994 South Africa’s First Democratic Elections – Marked the end of apartheid, with Nelson Mandela elected president in a landmark multiracial vote.

1999 Nigeria Returns to Civilian Rule – A turning point after decades of military dictatorships in Africa’s most populous nation.

2003–2005 Colour Revolutions – Peaceful uprisings in Georgia (Rose), Ukraine (Orange), and Kyrgyzstan challenged authoritarian election outcomes.

2000 Mexico Ends PRI Rule – Vicente Fox’s victory ended over 70 years of one-party dominance, signalling a democratic breakthrough.

2006–2020: Democratic Fatigue, Authoritarian Revival

2006 Hamas Election Victory (Palestine) – Democratic outcome challenged by international backlash and internal division.

2010–2012 Arab Spring – Mass protests triggered electoral openings in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and elsewhere, though most were short-lived or reversed.

2014 Thailand Coup – Military seized power, suspended elections, and rewrote the constitution, reflecting democratic regression.

2016 Brexit Referendum (UK) – A democratic vote with far-reaching geopolitical consequences, symbolising populist resurgence.

2016 U.S. Election (Trump) – Exposed vulnerabilities in democratic institutions, polarisation, and influence campaigns.

2019 Hong Kong Protests – Massive demonstrations against Beijing’s encroachment on electoral freedoms; led to sweeping crackdowns.

 2021–2025: Democratic Crossroads

2021 Myanmar Military Coup – Overthrew the elected government of Aung San Suu Kyi, reversing a decade of democratic transition.

2022 Kenya & Brazil Elections – High-stakes contests marked by misinformation and fears of democratic erosion, but ultimately peaceful transitions.

2023 Nigeria’s Disputed Election – Raised questions over legitimacy, voter suppression, and the independence of electoral institutions.

AI & Election Integrity Debates – Growing concerns over deepfakes, disinformation, and algorithmic manipulation shaping political discourse and electoral outcomes.

2024 India, EU, U.S. Mega-Elections – Held in the world’s largest democracies; voter trust, media freedom, and democratic norms remained under scrutiny.

A Fragile Balance

From revolutionary upheaval to digital disruption, the evolution of electoral democracy has never been linear. While the 20th century was marked by expansion and inclusion, the 21st has seen both innovation and backsliding. As we approach the mid-2020s, democracy stands at a critical juncture—one shaped as much by the past as by emerging global challenges.

CSV-Style Table: General Elections in Armenia (1900–2025)

System Transitions: Armenia shifted from one-party Soviet control to a presidential democracy in the 1990s, later transitioning to a parliamentary system post-2015 constitutional reforms.

Turnout Trends: Voter turnout was high in the early years of independence but has declined, especially amid electoral fatigue or political disillusionment.

Major Issues: Key themes across decades include state-building, post-conflict reconstruction (Nagorno-Karabakh), anti-corruption, and democratic reform.

From empires to emerging democracies, and from paper ballots to digital experiments, the story of global elections since 1900 is one of sweeping transformation. This article traces the defining electoral trends of each decade from the dawn of the 20th century to the mid-2020s — highlighting the march of democratisation, pivotal reforms, technological innovations, and episodes of democratic backsliding.

1900s–1910s: The Era of Limited Suffrage and Imperial Elections

At the turn of the 20th century, electoral democracy was still a rare privilege. Western Europe (e.g. the UK, France, Belgium) maintained restricted male suffrage, while most colonial territories had no voting rights at all. Notable developments included:

1906: Finland became the first country in Europe to grant full suffrage to women and allowed them to stand for office.

1911: Britain’s Parliament Act limited the powers of the House of Lords, strengthening the role of elected MPs.

Yet, most of Asia, Africa, and the Middle East remained under colonial rule, with no electoral mechanisms of their own.

1920s: Post-War Waves and Women’s Enfranchisement

After World War I, electoral politics began to expand:

The collapse of monarchies (e.g. in Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia) gave rise to new republics with constitutions and elections.

Universal suffrage for women advanced: the US (1920), the UK (1918/1928), and many European countries followed.

League of Nations mandates encouraged constitutional frameworks in the Middle East, though rarely democratic in nature.

This was a period of optimism, but fragile democracies were soon tested by economic shocks.

1930s: Authoritarian Rollbacks and Fascist Consolidation

Democratic backsliding dominated the 1930s:

Germany (1933): Hitler used electoral means to seize power, dissolving the Reichstag and banning opposition.

Italy (1920s–30s): Mussolini’s Fascist regime dismantled parliamentary democracy.

Spain, Portugal, and much of Eastern Europe fell under dictatorships or single-party rule.

Elections often continued in name but lost meaning in substance — serving as tools of authoritarian legitimacy.

1940s: War, Occupation, and Post-War Reconstruction

World War II disrupted elections across Europe, Asia, and Africa. However, its conclusion ushered in a new constitutional order:

1945–49: Germany, Japan, Italy, and Austria adopted new democratic constitutions under Allied supervision.

The United Nations was born in 1945, embedding the right to self-determination.

Decolonisation began, albeit slowly, creating potential for new electoral systems.

Still, the Cold War’s onset saw the world divided between Western democracies and Eastern bloc one-party regimes.

1950s: Decolonisation Begins, Cold War Polarises

While Eastern Europe remained under Soviet influence, electoral systems spread elsewhere:

India (1951–52): The world’s largest democratic election, using a secret ballot and universal adult suffrage.

African and Asian colonies began limited elections under British and French oversight.

The US Civil Rights movement began pressing for voting rights reforms.

This decade marked the beginning of electoral pluralism outside Europe, though within Cold War confines.

1960s: Independence and Institutional Experimentation

As decolonisation accelerated:

Over 30 African nations gained independence and held initial elections — Ghana (1957), Nigeria (1960), and Kenya (1963).

Many of these experiments were short-lived, as military coups and one-party states emerged (e.g. Uganda, Congo).

The US passed the Voting Rights Act (1965), a landmark for racial enfranchisement.

Though democracy expanded geographically, many post-colonial systems lacked durable institutions.

1970s: Authoritarian Decline and Democratic Revival

This decade witnessed both dictatorial entrenchment and democratic resurgence:

Portugal (1974) and Spain (1975) transitioned to democracy after decades of authoritarianism.

Latin America experienced military rule, with elections often manipulated or suspended.

The concept of “electoral authoritarianism” emerged — formal elections in undemocratic contexts (e.g. Zaire under Mobutu).

Yet the idea of the ballot box regained legitimacy worldwide.

1980s: Third Wave of Democratisation

Coined by Samuel Huntington, the “Third Wave” of democracy began:

Latin America’s return to civilian rule: Argentina (1983), Brazil (1985), Chile (1989).

Philippines (1986): People Power ousted Marcos through a democratic revolution.

Sub-Saharan Africa saw democratic movements rise, though many were stalled.

Globally, multi-party elections gained traction, often under international observation.

1990s: Post-Cold War Explosion of Elections

The Cold War’s end sparked a democratic boom:

Eastern Europe: Free elections in Poland (1989), East Germany (1990), Russia (1991).

South Africa (1994): First democratic election after apartheid.

African states adopted multi-party systems (e.g. Benin, Malawi), though often under pressure from donors.

The UN and NGOs played an increasing role in monitoring elections, enhancing legitimacy.

2000s: Institutional Deepening and Digital Transitions

Electronic voting systems were trialled in India, Estonia, and Brazil.

Electoral management bodies (EMBs) became more independent and professionalised.

Yet, manipulated democracies grew — e.g. Russia (Putin), Zimbabwe (Mugabe), Iran — blending elections with repression.

A growing divide emerged between formal democracy and substantive freedoms.

2010s: Populism, Disinformation, and Polarisation

Democracy faced new threats:

Populist victories (Trump in the US, Bolsonaro in Brazil, Modi in India) challenged norms.

Brexit (2016) showcased referendum-based direct democracy with global ripple effects.

Social media facilitated disinformation and polarisation, eroding electoral trust.

Arab Spring (2011): Brought fleeting electoral openings, most of which reversed (e.g. Egypt).

The decade marked a global democratic recession despite procedural elections.

2020s (to 2025): Pandemic, Protests, and AI Concerns

The early 2020s have been shaped by crises:

COVID-19 forced delays, mail-in ballots, and emergency election laws — raising legitimacy concerns.

Protests in Belarus (2020) and Iran (2022–23) spotlighted popular resistance to rigged elections.

Artificial intelligence and deepfakes are now frontiers of electoral interference.

Autocracies hold “performative elections” while cracking down on dissent — e.g. Russia (2024), China (Hong Kong).

Still, youth-led movements in Sudan, Myanmar, and Latin America signal continued faith in democratic change.

The Evolving Ballot

From oligarchic parliaments to smartphone voting, the evolution of elections reflects both humanity’s desire for representation and the elite’s attempts to retain control. The line between genuine democracy and its imitation has blurred — but across 125 years, the global trend is clear: elections remain central to legitimacy, even when manipulated. The next decades will test how resilient that idea remains in a digital, polarised, and uncertain world.

In the landscape of Armenia’s post-Soviet political evolution, the 2006 period (though not marked by a parliamentary election that year) is often cited by analysts as a critical inflection point in the build-up to Armenia’s deepening democratic malaise—culminating in the controversial 2007 elections. Though the formal election occurred in 2007, the political groundwork, manipulation, and controversy were being laid as early as 2006.

A System Under Strain

By 2006, President Robert Kocharyan had been in power since 1998, having succeeded Levon Ter-Petrosyan after a contested resignation. Kocharyan’s administration, backed by the increasingly dominant Republican Party of Armenia (RPA), was accused of entrenching a hybrid authoritarian system—where elections existed in form but were hollowed out in substance.

The 2003 elections had already been marred by accusations of vote-rigging, misuse of administrative resources, and media suppression. In the run-up to 2007, 2006 saw the regime tighten control over political opponents, curb media pluralism, and manipulate electoral commissions—all under the guise of legal reform.

2006: The Calm Before the (Electoral) Storm

While no nationwide general election occurred in 2006, the political scene was highly charged:

Opposition protests—led by figures like Stepan Demirchyan—were systematically repressed.

Electoral laws were amended, ostensibly to bring Armenia in line with European standards, but in reality, the revisions created loopholes favouring incumbents.

The ruling elite prepared to transfer power within loyalist networks, using 2006 to ensure no serious opposition could challenge their grip in 2007.

International observers, especially the OSCE and Council of Europe, had repeatedly urged deeper reforms. However, by 2006, it was clear that cosmetic compliance was masking growing authoritarianism.

The Regional Context: Authoritarian Drift

Armenia’s political environment in 2006 was not an anomaly in the post-Soviet space. Much like Russia under Putin and Azerbaijan under Aliyev, Armenia was consolidating a "managed democracy", where elections were held not to transfer power but to legitimise it.

The lack of a robust opposition, state capture of institutions, and coercive patronage networks turned Armenia’s elections into a procedural formality.

Legacy of 2006

The decisions, legal changes, and repressive tactics deployed in 2006 shaped the outcome of the 2007 elections, where the RPA secured a commanding victory amidst credible reports of:

Ballot-box stuffing

Media censorship

Voter intimidation

This year marked the deepening of public cynicism about elections in Armenia—a sentiment that only began to reverse with the 2018 Velvet Revolution.

Though 2006 is often overshadowed by formal election years, it stands as a critical prelude to a period of entrenched authoritarianism in Armenia. It reveals how non-election years can be politically pivotal, especially when institutions are systematically undermined in preparation for electoral theatre.

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