Electoral System & Structure in El Salvador (1900–2025)-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

El Salvador's electoral system has undergone significant changes between 1900 and 2025, reflecting its turbulent political history and gradual democratic transition. This article outlines the key voting systems and types of representation adopted during this period, including majoritarian and proportional elements, periods of authoritarianism, and eventual institutional reform.

1900–1930: Controlled Elections under Oligarchic Rule

During the early 20th century, El Salvador held elections under a highly centralised and autocratic system. Although formal elections were conducted, they lacked genuine competition or public trust.

Voting System: De facto majoritarian, though often symbolic.

Representation: Largely non-representative, as opposition parties were suppressed and elections frequently rigged to secure the continuity of military-backed presidents.

Election Type: Presidential and legislative elections were conducted, but often unopposed or with fraudulent vote counts.

1931–1979: Military Dominance and Token Elections

Following the 1931 coup, military rule intensified. While legislative and presidential elections continued, these were frequently marked by voter coercion, candidate disqualification, and electoral fraud.

System Used: Ostensibly plurality/majoritarian for presidential elections.

Legislature: Elected through systems resembling block voting, but always manipulated in favour of the ruling regime.

Notable Event: In the 1977 general election, official results claimed victory for the government-backed National Conciliation Party (PCN), amid credible allegations of massive fraud and repression.

1980–1992: Civil War and Electoral Reform Efforts

The civil war (1980–1992) paused normal electoral functions but simultaneously laid the foundation for institutional reform under international mediation.

Transition: Gradual move towards proportional representation (PR) for legislative elections as part of the democratisation process.

Reforms Introduced: The Electoral Code of 1983 and the creation of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) helped professionalise electoral administration.

Post-1992 Peace Accords: Democratisation and PR System

The 1992 Chapultepec Peace Accords marked the formal transition to electoral democracy. A fully proportional representation system was institutionalised for legislative elections, and presidential elections became increasingly competitive.

Presidential Elections:

System: Two-round majoritarian (absolute majority required; runoff if no candidate receives over 50%).

Term: Five years, no immediate re-election allowed (until 2021 ruling by Constitutional Chamber).

Legislative Elections:

System: Proportional representation using the Hare quota with largest remainder method.

Constituencies: 14 multi-member departments (matching administrative divisions).

Open List Voting: Introduced reforms in 2012 allowing voters to select individual candidates rather than party lists alone.

2014–2025: Technological Modernisation & Political Transformation

Recent years saw further reforms and structural changes:

Introduction of residential voting and biometric voter registration (2014 onwards).

2021 Presidential Term Change: The Constitutional Chamber controversially ruled that immediate re-election is permissible, allowing a sitting president to seek a consecutive term.

Dominance of Nuevas Ideas: Under President Nayib Bukele, the party consolidated power, winning a legislative supermajority in 2021 and the presidency again in 2024, raising concerns about the erosion of pluralism.

Summary Table of Electoral Systems (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s electoral system evolved from authoritarian and majoritarian practices to a two-round presidential election system and proportional representation for legislative seats. Despite modernisation and increasing transparency, recent developments under a dominant ruling party have sparked debate about the future integrity of El Salvador’s electoral framework.

El Salvador's Transition to a Multi-Party Democratic Electoral System

El Salvador’s path to democracy has been long and fraught with violence, military rule, and civil war. For much of the 20th century, the country’s political landscape was dominated by authoritarian regimes and sham elections. The true transition to a multi-party democratic electoral system only began to take shape in the 1980s and was consolidated in the early 1990s with the end of the civil war and the implementation of peace accords.

Authoritarian Foundations and Restricted Elections (1931–1979)

From 1931 onwards, El Salvador was under near-continuous military or military-backed rule. Although elections were occasionally held, they were often fraudulent, tightly controlled, and excluded genuine opposition. The military and its affiliated parties, especially the Partido de Conciliación Nacional (PCN), maintained power through repressive tactics and vote manipulation.

During this era, El Salvador was far from a democracy. Political pluralism was virtually non-existent, and rival parties had little room to operate.

Beginnings of Transition: Political Reform Amid Conflict (1979–1992)

The pivotal moment came in 1979, when a reform-minded military coup ousted President Carlos Humberto Romero. The coup aimed to address growing unrest and halt the descent into violence. However, it instead triggered a 12-year civil war between government forces and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition of leftist guerrilla groups.

Amid this backdrop, the early 1980s brought attempts at democratic reform. A new constitution in 1983 established the groundwork for democratic governance, and multi-party elections began to take place. However, these elections occurred in the shadow of armed conflict and significant human rights violations.

Still, by 1984, competitive presidential elections were held, with José Napoleón Duarte of the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) defeating the right-wing ARENA candidate. The emergence of ARENA, PDC, and other parties reflected the birth of a multi-party framework, though full democratic functionality remained limited due to the ongoing war.

Democratic Consolidation: The 1992 Peace Accords and 1994 Elections

El Salvador’s true democratic turning point came with the Chapultepec Peace Accords signed in January 1992. These accords formally ended the civil war and included wide-ranging political reforms:

The demobilisation of guerrilla forces

The incorporation of the FMLN as a legal political party

The establishment of a reformed and independent electoral authority

Institutional and judicial reforms to ensure civil liberties

The 1994 general elections were a historic milestone. They marked the first truly democratic, multi-party elections in which the FMLN participated legally. International observers declared the vote largely free and fair, solidifying El Salvador's status as a new democracy.

Modern Democracy and Political Realignment

Since the 1990s, El Salvador has experienced regular democratic elections, peaceful transfers of power, and evolving party competition. From the early ARENA dominance (1989–2009) to the FMLN presidencies (2009–2019), and then to the rise of Nayib Bukele and Nuevas Ideas in 2019 and 2021, the system has allowed for dynamic political shifts.

Despite current concerns about democratic backsliding under President Bukele—particularly regarding judicial independence and rule of law—El Salvador continues to operate as a multi-party electoral democracy, at least in form.

El Salvador’s transition to a democratic, multi-party system was gradual and conflict-ridden. The shift began tentatively in the 1980s but only fully materialised in 1992 with the signing of the Peace Accords. The 1994 elections stand as the defining moment when El Salvador could be considered a functioning electoral democracy, inclusive of all major political forces and held under fairer rules.

Key Milestones at a Glance

El Salvador National Election Results and Political Outcomes (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s electoral history reflects a turbulent trajectory of authoritarianism, civil conflict, democratisation, and more recently, populist consolidation. From the early 20th-century military-controlled ballots to the highly contested 1977 election and the democratic consolidation post-1992 peace accords, each electoral cycle offers a lens into the country’s political evolution. Below is a historic overview of El Salvador's national election results between 1900 and 2025, highlighting party names, seat distributions, and voter turnout.

Snapshot Table: General Elections in El Salvador (1900–2025)

Focus: 1977 General Election of El Salvador

Background:
Held on 20 February 1977, the presidential election was marred by widespread allegations of fraud and violent repression. It marked the peak of electoral authoritarianism just before the civil war.

Candidates & Outcome:

Carlos Humberto Romero (PCN – National Conciliation Party): Declared Winner

Ernesto Antonio Claramount (UNO – United National Opposition, led by PDC and allies): Main opposition

Official Result:

Carlos Romero (PCN): ~67.3% (declared)

Claramount (UNO): ~32.7% (claimed higher by opposition)

Legislative Assembly (1976 Results used for composition):

PCN: 50 out of 52 seats

PDC/UNO: 2 seats

Turnout: ~45% (disputed by observers; possibly lower)

Aftermath:

Public protests against alleged fraud led to brutal crackdowns, including the killing of civilians by security forces during demonstrations.

The 1977 elections are often cited as a catalyst for radicalisation and the onset of full-scale civil war by 1980.

El Salvador’s electoral history is marked by deep contestation, militarised control, and eventual democratic breakthroughs. From single-party military dominance to the rise of Nuevas Ideas in the 2020s, voter turnout and political representation have reflected both hope and crisis. While elections since the 1990s have been more democratic in structure, recent developments raise concerns about executive overreach and the erosion of institutional independence.

A Political Chronology: Major Parties and Leaders in El Salvador’s Elections, 1900–2025

From oligarchic control in the early 20th century to the populist wave of the 21st, El Salvador's electoral journey has been shaped by military rulers, revolutionary movements, and democratic realignments. Below is a comprehensive overview of the major political parties, leaders, and electoral outcomes from 1900 to 2025.

Early 20th Century (1900–1930): Military Strongmen and Coffee Oligarchy

During this period, politics was largely controlled by the coffee elite and military-backed figures. Elections were often perfunctory and uncompetitive.

Presidents:

Tomás Regalado (1898–1903) – ex-military strongman.

Pedro José Escalón (1903–1907) and Fernando Figueroa (1907–1911) – aligned with conservative landowners.

Carlos Meléndez, Jorge Meléndez, and Alfonso Quiñónez Molina (1913–1927) – operated under the so-called “Meléndez-Quiñónez dynasty”.

Parties: No formal parties; politics functioned around ruling cliques and personal alliances.

Outcome: El Salvador remained under the grip of authoritarian presidents, with staged elections and elite-driven governance.

1931–1979: Military Rule and One-Party Dominance

1931: Arturo Araujo wins a democratic election but is overthrown within months.
General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez (1931–1944) took power, establishing a military dictatorship.
His regime oversaw La Matanza (1932), a brutal suppression of a peasant revolt led by indigenous and communist sympathisers.

Political Parties:

PRUD (Partido Revolucionario de Unificación Democrática) – military-backed party from 1950s.

PCN (Partido de Conciliación Nacional) – dominant military-aligned party from 1962 onwards.

Presidents:

Óscar Osorio (1950–1956, PRUD)

José María Lemus (1956–1960, PRUD)

Julio Adalberto Rivera, Fidel Sánchez Hernández, Arturo Armando Molina, and Carlos Humberto Romero (1962–1979, PCN)

Outcome: Elections were held but lacked credibility; PCN monopolised power. Civil unrest escalated by the late 1970s.

1980–1992: Civil War and Insurgency

The political landscape was defined by civil war between the military government and the FMLN (Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front), a leftist guerrilla group.

Key Parties:

ARENA (Alianza Republicana Nacionalista) – founded in 1981 by Roberto D’Aubuisson, a far-right military figure.

FMLN – guerrilla coalition turned political party post-1992.

Presidents:

José Napoleón Duarte (1984–1989, PDC – centrist Christian Democrats)

Alfredo Cristiani (1989–1994, ARENA)

Outcome: War dominated politics. ARENA began its long dominance in democratic post-war elections. Peace Accords signed in 1992.

Post-War Democratic Period (1994–2009): Two-Party Rivalry

ARENA’s dominance continued with presidents:

Armando Calderón Sol (1994–1999)

Francisco Flores (1999–2004)

Antonio Saca (2004–2009)

FMLN emerged as ARENA’s main opposition, transitioning from armed insurgency to mainstream politics.

Outcome: Bipolar party system entrenched, though ARENA faced growing public disillusionment.

2009–2019: Rise of the Left

2009: Mauricio Funes becomes first FMLN president. A former journalist, he symbolised reform and social justice.

2014: Salvador Sánchez Cerén, ex-guerrilla commander, continues FMLN rule.

Outcome: FMLN achieves power through democratic means but struggles with corruption and economic stagnation.

2019–2025: Populist Disruption under Bukele

2019: Nayib Bukele, formerly FMLN mayor of San Salvador, runs under GANA (Grand Alliance for National Unity) and wins the presidency, ending decades of ARENA-FMLN duopoly.

2021: Bukele’s new party, Nuevas Ideas, wins 56 of 84 seats in the Legislative Assembly, consolidating unprecedented control.

2024 Presidential Election:

Nayib Bukele re-elected in a landslide despite constitutional concerns over re-election.

Nuevas Ideas secures 68+ seats, achieving supermajority.

Outcome: El Salvador shifts into a new populist era. While widely popular, Bukele's presidency draws criticism for weakening checks and balances.

El Salvador’s political history is marked by transitions from oligarchic rule to military dictatorship, civil war, and ultimately democracy—albeit increasingly centralised. From the conservative PCN and authoritarian PRUD, to the democratic contests between ARENA and FMLN, and finally the emergence of Bukele’s Nuevas Ideas, the country’s electoral journey mirrors its broader struggle with justice, security, and institutional stability.

Electoral Violence and Violations in El Salvador (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 is marred by episodes of political violence, irregularities, and contested legitimacy. Throughout the 20th century, particularly during the country's military-led governments and civil war, electoral processes were frequently undermined by fraud, intimidation, and repression. While post-war democratic reforms improved the integrity of elections, violations and tensions persisted, particularly around the transition of power and party dominance.

Reported Irregularities and Electoral Violence (1900–2025)

Early 20th Century: Military Rule and Fraud (1900s–1940s)

Elections in the early 1900s were largely symbolic, with outcomes pre-determined under military or authoritarian leadership. Manuel Enrique Araujo’s 1911 election, for instance, occurred in a non-competitive environment. The 1931 election, which brought Arturo Araujo to power, was one of the first somewhat competitive contests, but his government was overthrown in a coup within a year, marking a return to military dominance.

 The 1944 Uprising and Aftermath

In 1944, President Maximiliano Hernández Martínez sought re-election after a fraudulent 1944 vote, sparking mass protests and a general strike. This led to his resignation but also triggered a cycle of coups and interim military governments, with elections in subsequent years lacking legitimacy.

The 1972 and 1977 Elections: Hallmarks of Fraud and Brutality

These elections were pivotal in highlighting deep-seated fraud and repression:

1972 Presidential Election: The UNO opposition coalition, headed by José Napoleón Duarte, was widely believed to have won. However, the military annulled results, declared their candidate Arturo Armando Molina the winner, and exiled Duarte after a failed military uprising.

1977 Presidential Election: Marked by blatant fraud, vote-rigging, and the murder of opposition supporters, including a notorious massacre of peaceful protestors in Plaza Libertad. The regime declared General Carlos Humberto Romero the winner amid widespread disbelief.

Civil War Period (1980–1992): Elections under Siege

El Salvador plunged into a brutal civil war, during which elections were held but were deeply tainted by violence and lack of access for rural voters:

1982 Constituent Assembly Election: Held under martial law, with death squads active, and guerrilla forces boycotting or disrupting voting in rebel-controlled areas.

1984 Presidential Election: Despite improved conditions, the campaign was marred by intimidation, with the ARENA party accused of links to death squads.

Post-War Elections (1994 Onward): Improvements with Lingering Issues

The 1994 general elections were the first after the peace accords and were praised for being largely free and fair, though logistical issues remained. Later years saw institutional strengthening of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE), but also accusations of bias, vote-buying, and delays.

2014 Presidential Election: The second-round runoff between FMLN’s Salvador Sánchez Cerén and ARENA’s Norman Quijano was extremely close and led to accusations of fraud, though international observers upheld the results.

2021 Legislative Elections: Marked by intense polarisation, with President Nayib Bukele’s party sweeping the vote. Civil society groups raised concerns about media intimidation, misuse of state resources, and lack of judicial independence.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections (1900–2025)

While El Salvador has made significant progress in democratising its elections since the 1990s, its electoral history is deeply scarred by a legacy of violence, manipulation, and authoritarianism. Even in the 21st century, concerns remain about transparency, media freedom, and judicial impartiality, especially under President Bukele’s administration. 

Democracy Index & Reform in El Salvador (1900–2025): An Electoral Journey

El Salvador’s history of electoral democracy from 1900 to 2025 reflects a turbulent path shaped by military rule, civil conflict, democratic breakthroughs, and, most recently, signs of democratic backsliding. While notable reforms have occurred—particularly after the 1992 Peace Accords—the country’s standing in global democracy rankings has fluctuated with changing regimes and political conditions.

1900–1930: Oligarchic Rule and Controlled Elections

At the start of the 20th century, El Salvador was far from a functioning democracy. Elections existed but were tightly controlled by a small oligarchy aligned with the military. Political power was concentrated in the hands of coffee elites, and suffrage was highly restricted. Opposition was marginalised, and electoral outcomes were predetermined. No international democracy index rated El Salvador at this time, but by modern standards, it would be categorised as non-democratic or authoritarian.

1931–1979: Military Authoritarianism and Repression

A 1931 coup led by General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez entrenched military rule for nearly five decades. Elections during this era were mostly symbolic, with frequent fraud and suppression of dissent. One-party dominance, lack of political freedoms, and absence of an independent judiciary characterised the system.

This period saw no meaningful electoral reforms. In fact, it represented a deepening of authoritarianism. Had global indices like the Polity IV Project or Freedom House rated El Salvador then, the country would likely have scored at the bottom of the scale.

1980–1992: Civil War and Democratic Stalemate

The Salvadoran Civil War (1980–1992) marked a period of intense internal conflict, sparked in part by electoral injustices and the concentration of power. Although elections were held during this period (notably in 1982 and 1984), they were overshadowed by violence, intimidation, and exclusion of key opposition voices such as the leftist FMLN, then an armed insurgency.

The international community, led by the United Nations, played a key role in brokering peace and designing reforms. These reforms laid the groundwork for genuine democratic transition.

1992–2009: Democratic Breakthrough and Electoral Reform

The signing of the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992 was a turning point for Salvadoran democracy. It introduced sweeping changes:

Creation of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) as an independent body

Legalisation of all political parties

Demilitarisation of the police

International monitoring of elections

From 1994 onward, El Salvador began holding competitive elections, culminating in the peaceful alternation of power in 2009 when the FMLN won the presidency for the first time. During this period, the country scored relatively well on the Freedom House index (categorised as "Free") and moved into the "Flawed Democracy" category on the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) Democracy Index.

2010–2020: Political Stability with Populist Currents

El Salvador maintained formal democratic institutions, but issues such as corruption, impunity, and lack of judicial independence persisted. The emergence of Nayib Bukele, a populist figure, initially raised hopes for a break from party dominance. Elected president in 2019, he promised transparency and renewal.

However, cracks in the democratic framework began to show. In 2021, Bukele’s party, Nuevas Ideas, secured a supermajority in the Legislative Assembly. It used this power to dismiss Constitutional Court judges and the Attorney General, drawing international criticism for undermining judicial independence.

2021–2025: Backsliding in a Digital Authoritarian Age?

Recent developments have placed El Salvador’s democracy under scrutiny:

A 2021 ruling by newly appointed judges allowing presidential re-election was widely condemned as unconstitutional.

Increasing centralisation of power in the presidency raised concerns over authoritarian drift.

Civil society organisations, independent media, and opposition parties reported intimidation.

In 2024, the reduction of legislative seats and redistricting measures were criticised for undermining political pluralism.

In response, the EIU Democracy Index downgraded El Salvador further, bringing it closer to the “Hybrid Regime” category. Freedom House downgraded its rating to "Partly Free", citing the erosion of checks and balances and attacks on freedom of expression.

A Democracy at a Crossroads

Between 1900 and 2025, El Salvador has oscillated between authoritarianism and democratisation. The post-war period saw promising reform, but the country’s current trajectory raises alarms about democratic erosion. While elections still occur, and popular support for the ruling party remains high, the concentration of power and weakening of independent institutions threaten the democratic gains of the past three decades.

El Salvador’s democracy today stands not at its beginning or its peak—but at a crossroads. Whether it reverses this backsliding or continues along an illiberal path remains one of the most pressing questions for its political future.

Sources:

Freedom House: Freedom in the World Reports

Economist Intelligence Unit: Democracy Index (various years)

United Nations: Chapultepec Peace Accords Documentation

Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) of El Salvador

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Reports

Major Electoral Reforms in El Salvador from 1900 to 2025

The history of electoral reform in El Salvador is closely tied to the country’s broader political struggles—ranging from military rule and civil war to post-conflict democratisation. From 1900 to 2025, El Salvador has transitioned from authoritarian governance with symbolic elections to a developing democracy characterised by multiparty competition and progressive electoral mechanisms. This article explores the key reforms that have shaped El Salvador’s electoral system across more than a century.

1900–1940: Elections in the Shadow of Authoritarianism

At the beginning of the 20th century, El Salvador was governed by a series of military-backed regimes. Electoral processes during this era were largely ceremonial, often used to consolidate power rather than express public will.

Restricted Franchise: Voting rights were heavily limited, typically reserved for adult literate males, and often subject to manipulation by those in power.

Lack of Independent Electoral Authority: There were no impartial institutions overseeing elections, allowing regimes to control outcomes with impunity.

No significant electoral reform occurred during this period due to the dominance of autocratic governance and suppression of dissent.

1940s–1970s: Controlled Pluralism and Superficial Reform

The mid-20th century saw modest institutional changes, but real democratic reform remained elusive.

Creation of the Central Electoral Council (Consejo Central de Elecciones - CCE) in the 1950s was a nominal attempt to formalise election management. However, the body lacked independence and was widely viewed as an extension of ruling elites.

Women’s Suffrage (1950): A landmark moment, women were granted the right to vote, though practical limitations—like literacy tests—continued to exclude large segments of the population.

Military Influence Remained Strong: Elections were held, but with predetermined outcomes favouring the military or affiliated parties. Opposition groups faced harassment, and electoral fraud was rampant.

Despite the appearance of reform, these changes did little to establish genuine democratic practices.

1980–1992: Civil War and the Push for Reform

The Salvadoran Civil War (1980–1992) between the military-led government and the leftist guerrilla movement, the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), fundamentally altered the country’s political landscape.

1983 Constitution: Amid the conflict, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the basis for a democratic electoral framework. It enshrined civil liberties, multiparty competition, and a division of powers.

Shift Toward Electoral Legitimacy: While violence and voter intimidation persisted, elections in the 1980s began to feature more serious political competition, foreshadowing future democratic transitions.

1992–2010: Peace Accords and the Foundations of Democracy

The signing of the 1992 Peace Accords ended the civil war and initiated a wave of democratic reforms, particularly in the electoral arena.

Establishment of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Supremo Electoral – TSE) in 1994 marked a pivotal step. The TSE was designed to be autonomous, non-partisan, and fully responsible for managing elections.

New Electoral Code: Introduced in 1993 and revised multiple times, this code established clear procedures for elections, campaign conduct, and party registration.

Inclusion of Former Combatants: The FMLN became a legal political party, competing in elections and eventually winning power—cementing multiparty democracy.

Improved Voter Registration: Implementation of a national identification system (DUI) improved transparency and reduced fraud by ensuring a reliable voter registry.

These reforms helped El Salvador transition from post-conflict governance to democratic competition, increasing confidence in electoral outcomes.

2010–2025: Modernising Participation and Expanding Rights

In the last 15 years, El Salvador has introduced a series of modern electoral reforms, many of which were influenced by demands for greater transparency, inclusiveness, and technological efficiency.

Key Developments:

Overseas Voting Rights (2014): For the first time, Salvadorans living abroad—especially the large diaspora in the United States—were granted the right to vote in presidential elections. This expanded electoral participation and acknowledged the importance of the diaspora.

Independent Candidacies (2012 Constitutional Reform): Citizens were allowed to run for office without being affiliated with political parties, enhancing democratic pluralism.

Gender Parity (2013 Law): Political parties were required to include at least 30% women on their candidate lists, promoting gender balance in representation.

Campaign Finance Regulations (2015 onwards): Increased scrutiny was introduced regarding the sources of political funding, including requirements for transparency in donations and spending caps.

Introduction of Technology in Vote Counting: The TSE began implementing systems for digital vote transmission and result tallying, reducing delays and potential manipulation during the counting process.

Electoral Justice Reforms: Strengthened oversight mechanisms allowed for faster resolution of electoral complaints and improved judicial independence in electoral matters.

Ongoing and Proposed Reforms (2024–2025)

Lowering the Voting Age to 16: A national debate began around granting suffrage to younger citizens to encourage civic engagement.

Digital Voter Registry Modernisation: Plans were initiated to digitise and decentralise the voter registration system.

Diaspora Representation in Legislature: Proposals have been tabled to allow Salvadorans abroad to elect their own representatives to the Legislative Assembly.

The trajectory of electoral reform in El Salvador from 1900 to 2025 reflects a broader story of struggle, transformation, and resilience. From an era dominated by military autocracy and symbolic elections to a modern electoral system with independent oversight, inclusive laws, and international standards, the country has made notable progress.

While challenges remain—including concerns over political polarisation, judicial independence, and electoral trust—El Salvador’s electoral framework has undergone significant evolution. As the nation looks beyond 2025, the consolidation of these reforms will be vital to the preservation and deepening of its democratic gains.

Global Comparison: Electoral System of El Salvador (1900–2025) — A Century in Review

This comparative analysis might appear curious at first glance—comparing El Salvador with El Salvador across the timeline from 1900 to 2025. Yet, it is precisely this longitudinal comparison that reveals the country’s democratic evolution, its moments of stagnation, its periods of promise, and its current fragility.

This piece traces how the electoral system transformed over time and asks: Was El Salvador more democratic in 2025 than in 1900? The short answer is yes, but the road has been far from linear.

El Salvador’s Electoral System in 1900

At the turn of the 20th century, El Salvador was not a democracy by any modern standard. The political system was a military-oligarchic autocracy, with elections functioning as a mechanism to legitimise pre-selected leaders rather than as a genuine expression of popular will.

Key features of the 1900 system included:

Restricted suffrage: Voting was often limited to literate, property-owning males.

No independent election body: Electoral management was directly controlled by those in power.

One-party dominance: Power alternated within elite factions, with little to no political competition.

Military influence: The army played a central role in shaping political outcomes.

Although elections were held periodically, they were neither competitive nor meaningful. Political opposition, if any, was weak and often repressed. In short, El Salvador in 1900 was not a democracy in substance or form.

El Salvador’s Electoral System in 2025

By 2025, El Salvador's electoral framework is much more institutionalised and superficially democratic, featuring:

Universal suffrage: All citizens aged 18 and above can vote.

Independent electoral body: The Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) manages elections, though its independence has recently been questioned.

Multiple political parties: A functioning multi-party system exists, though increasingly dominated by the ruling Nuevas Ideas party.

Regular elections: Presidential, legislative, and municipal elections are held according to constitutional timelines.

However, despite these formal structures, El Salvador’s system in 2025 is also marked by:

Judicial capture: The ruling party’s replacement of Constitutional Court judges has weakened oversight.

Erosion of checks and balances: Power has increasingly been centralised in the executive.

Media and civil society pressure: Journalists and NGOs face growing restrictions.

Electoral manipulation: Legal changes, including redistricting and seat reduction, have favoured incumbents.

While technically democratic, recent developments suggest movement toward a “hybrid regime”—one that retains democratic institutions but weakens them through executive overreach.

Which Was More Democratic: 1900 or 2025?

From a strictly electoral perspective, El Salvador in 2025 is far more democratic than in 1900. The right to vote is universal, elections are more competitive, and institutions exist to regulate the process. That said, the quality of democracy in 2025 is under growing scrutiny.

Here’s a side-by-side comparison:

In summary, 2025 El Salvador is more democratic in structure, but 1900 El Salvador was more honest about its authoritarianism. The modern system, while more inclusive and institutionally robust, now risks hollowing out from within. This reflects the global trend of “electoral authoritarianism,” where voting persists but the spirit of democracy is undercut.

A Fragile Advancement

Comparing El Salvador across a century reveals tremendous progress—yet also a reminder that democracy is not a fixed destination. It can be reversed, reshaped, or quietly dismantled. While 2025 is leagues ahead of 1900 in terms of voter rights and electoral institutions, the creeping erosion of democratic safeguards reminds us that democracy must be protected not only in form, but in function.

Sources:

Economist Intelligence Unit: Democracy Index Reports

Freedom House: Freedom in the World

Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE)

United Nations Peace Accords Documentation

Historical Archives of El Salvador

First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century: Countries and Their Electoral Systems

The 20th century was a pivotal era for democratic development across the globe. Dozens of countries held their first-ever democratic elections during this period, marking significant transitions from colonial rule, monarchies, and authoritarian regimes to representative governance. These inaugural elections often reflected the political, historical, and social realities of each country and were shaped by a variety of electoral systems—from simple majoritarian methods to proportional representation.

Below is an overview of selected countries that held their first democratic elections in the 20th century, along with the electoral system each employed.

India – 1951–52

System Used: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: Following independence from British colonial rule in 1947, India held its first general elections in 1951–52. With over 170 million eligible voters, it became the world’s largest exercise in democracy at the time. The FPTP system, a legacy of British administration, was adopted for electing members to the Lok Sabha (lower house).

Germany (West) – 1949

System Used: Mixed-Member Proportional Representation

Context: Post-World War II, West Germany conducted its first federal election in 1949 under Allied supervision. The electoral system combined proportional representation with direct mandates, forming the foundation of the Bundestag’s modern structure. It was designed to ensure stable government while maintaining fair party representation.

Japan – 1946

System Used: Limited Voting (later FPTP and Proportional Representation)

Context: Under American occupation after World War II, Japan held its first post-war democratic election in 1946. Women voted for the first time. The system evolved quickly, and by 1947 the electoral process included both FPTP and proportional components.

 South Korea – 1948

System Used: Plurality (FPTP)

Context: South Korea’s first democratic election followed liberation from Japanese colonial rule and the division of the Korean Peninsula. It marked the establishment of the Republic of Korea, with Syngman Rhee elected president under a majoritarian electoral system.

Israel – 1949

System Used: Proportional Representation (PR)

Context: Following its declaration of independence in 1948, Israel held its first Knesset election in January 1949. The country adopted a proportional representation system with a nationwide constituency, which continues to shape its highly pluralistic party system.

Ghana – 1951 (under colonial oversight), 1957 (fully independent)

System Used: Single-Member Plurality (FPTP)

Context: Ghana (then the Gold Coast) held elections in 1951 under British colonial administration. In 1957, following independence, Ghana reaffirmed its democratic system using the FPTP method to elect its first national leaders.

Indonesia – 1955

System Used: Proportional Representation

Context: After gaining independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1949, Indonesia held its first parliamentary elections in 1955. A proportional system was chosen to reflect the country’s immense ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity.

Nigeria – 1959 (pre-independence), 1960 (independent)

System Used: FPTP (British Westminster Model)

Context: Nigeria held its first democratic election under British oversight in 1959, using the FPTP system. After independence in 1960, the system was retained for early national elections, although democracy was short-lived due to military coups.

Philippines – 1935

System Used: FPTP

Context: Under American colonial rule, the Philippines held its first presidential election in 1935 as part of the transition toward self-governance. Manuel L. Quezon became the first elected president using the FPTP system, a structure that would persist in subsequent years.

Argentina – 1916

System Used: Universal Male Suffrage with FPTP (Saénz Peña Law)

Context: With the passing of the Saénz Peña Law in 1912, Argentina introduced secret ballot and universal male suffrage. The first truly democratic national election followed in 1916, with Hipólito Yrigoyen elected under a majoritarian system.

 Turkey – 1950

System Used: FPTP

Context: After decades of single-party rule under the Republican People's Party (CHP), Turkey held a landmark multiparty election in 1950. The Democratic Party won in a landslide victory through a majoritarian, FPTP system, signalling a shift to competitive electoral politics.

Kenya – 1963

System Used: FPTP

Context: Kenya’s first general election occurred on the cusp of independence from Britain. The system used was modelled on the British parliamentary style, with single-member constituencies and a majority-rule approach.

Namibia – 1989

System Used: Proportional Representation

Context: Under UN supervision and following South African withdrawal, Namibia held its first democratic elections in 1989. The proportional system aimed to ensure fair representation during the transition to independence and multiparty democracy.

The 20th century ushered in a wave of democratic awakenings across Asia, Africa, Europe, and Latin America. While electoral systems varied—shaped by colonial legacies, post-war reconstruction, or local political cultures—each of these inaugural elections represented a turning point. From proportional systems designed to accommodate diversity, to majoritarian structures aimed at simplicity and stability, the variety of electoral frameworks highlights the adaptability of democracy across different contexts.

As we move further into the 21st century, these foundational elections remain significant not just for their historical symbolism, but for the electoral traditions they established—traditions that continue to influence political participation and democratic resilience in each country today.

Timeline of Major Elections and Political Turning Points in El Salvador (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s political evolution from 1900 to 2025 reveals a complex trajectory from military strongman rule to civil war and finally post-war democratisation. Below is a timeline summarising the most critical elections and related political turning points in modern Salvadoran history.

1900–1931: Oligarchic & Military Rule

1903, 1907, 1911 – Elections held under military-led regimes, including General Tomás Regalado and Manuel Enrique Araujo. These were non-competitive, elite-driven polls, often decided before ballots were cast.

1931 Presidential Election – Arturo Araujo elected in one of the few partially democratic contests of the era. Within a year, he was overthrown in a military coup, setting the stage for five decades of military control.

1932–1979: Authoritarianism, Repression & Electoral Facade

1932 Municipal Elections & Rebellion – Communist-aligned groups sought local power but faced fraud and violent suppression. The indigenous-led uprising that followed led to "La Matanza", where up to 30,000 peasants were killed.

1944 Re-election Crisis – President Hernández Martínez rigged his re-election, provoking a national strike and his eventual resignation. Power was again seized by military officers.

1972 Presidential Election – Marked a critical fraudulent turning point. The UNO opposition, led by José Napoleón Duarte, was thought to have won, but the military installed their candidate. Duarte was exiled.

1977 Presidential Election – Widely condemned for brutality and rigged results. Peaceful demonstrators in Plaza Libertad were massacred, and Carlos Humberto Romero took office amid protest and bloodshed.

1980–1992: Civil War and War-Time Elections

1982 Constituent Assembly Elections – Held under martial law, designed to restore civilian rule, but violence from both state and guerrilla forces limited voter participation.

1984 Presidential Election – José Napoleón Duarte won under U.S.-backed democratic transition, defeating ARENA’s Roberto D’Aubuisson, though tensions persisted amid civil war violence.

1989 Presidential Election – First ARENA presidential victory under Alfredo Cristiani. Marked a hard-line turn and paved the way for peace negotiations.

1994–2009: Post-War Democratic Consolidation

1994 General Elections – First post-war fully democratic elections, under UN observation. FMLN (former guerrilla group) participated legally for the first time. ARENA’s Armando Calderón Sol won the presidency.

1999 Presidential Election – ARENA’s Francisco Flores elected. Democracy became institutionalised, but economic issues and corruption started eroding trust.

2004 Presidential Election – ARENA’s Antonio Saca won; however, allegations of vote-buying and corruption began to surface, straining democratic credibility.

2009–2025: Political Alternation and Populist Consolidation

2009 Presidential Election – Historic victory for FMLN’s Mauricio Funes, ending two decades of ARENA rule. Peaceful alternation of power signalled democratic maturity.

2014 Presidential Election – Salvador Sánchez Cerén of FMLN narrowly won. Contested results, yet democratic institutions held.

2019 Presidential Election – Nayib Bukele, running under GANA, broke the traditional two-party dominance. A populist outsider, Bukele's win marked a seismic political shift.

2021 Legislative Elections – Bukele’s party Nuevas Ideas won a supermajority, allowing sweeping institutional reforms. Criticised for eroding checks and balances.

2024 Presidential Election – Bukele re-elected controversially after a constitutional reinterpretation permitted re-election. While popular, international observers raised red flags over democratic backsliding and judicial independence.

From authoritarianism and massacres to civil war, and later to a fragile but maturing democracy, El Salvador’s elections reflect a nation struggling to balance power, legitimacy, and reform. The 21st century has introduced new challenges—especially under Bukele’s dominance—highlighting that while democratic procedures have taken root, their substance remains contested.

Pivotal Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in El Salvador (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s democratic evolution from 1900 to 2025 has been profoundly influenced not only by domestic upheavals but also by global political trends, revolutions, and reforms. These external and internal events combined to shape the country’s electoral landscape over more than a century. Below is a list of the major global and national electoral events that fundamentally reshaped Salvadoran democracy.

The 1931 Military Coup and Rise of Authoritarianism

Context: Inspired by global interwar instability and military interventions worldwide, El Salvador’s 1931 military coup overthrew President Arturo Araujo just months after his election.

Impact: Initiated nearly five decades of military dominance, suppressing democratic institutions and civilian political participation.

The 1932 Peasant Revolt (“La Matanza”)

Context: Linked to communist and socialist movements globally, especially the influence of Marxist ideas spreading in Latin America.

Impact: Brutal repression of leftist insurgents and indigenous communities led to mass killings, curtailing political pluralism and forcing opposition underground for decades.

World War II and Post-War Global Democratic Pressure

Context: The post-WWII global wave of decolonisation and democratic promotion by the United States and the United Nations put pressure on authoritarian regimes.

Impact: Though slow and limited, this encouraged some political liberalisation in El Salvador, including brief civilian-led governments and reforms in the 1940s.

Cold War Polarisation and US Influence (1950s–1980s)

Context: The global ideological conflict between capitalism and communism heavily influenced El Salvador, with the US backing right-wing governments to prevent leftist revolutions.

Impact: Militarised politics, electoral fraud, and repression intensified. Opposition movements became radicalised, culminating in the 1980 civil war.

The 1992 Chapultepec Peace Accords

Context: Part of a broader wave of peace agreements worldwide ending Cold War-era conflicts.

Impact: Transformed the FMLN guerrillas into a political party, instituted electoral reforms, and re-established democratic processes, ending 12 years of civil war.

1994 First Post-War Democratic Elections

Context: Reflecting global democratic consolidation in the 1990s, El Salvador held credible elections with peaceful transfers of power.

Impact: Solidified democracy with the establishment of a two-party system (ARENA and FMLN), strengthening electoral institutions.

The 2009 Election of Mauricio Funes (FMLN)

Context: Mirroring the rise of leftist governments across Latin America during the “Pink Tide,” such as in Venezuela, Bolivia, and Brazil.

Impact: Marked the first peaceful transfer of power to the left in El Salvador’s history, signalling mature democratic pluralism.

Global Rise of Populism and Nayib Bukele’s Election (2019)

Context: Part of a worldwide trend of populist leaders capitalising on anti-establishment sentiment.

Impact: Bukele’s victory disrupted the traditional party system, concentrated power, and challenged democratic norms with strong executive control.

2021 Legislative Supermajority and Democratic Backsliding Concerns

Context: Echoing tendencies seen in other democracies globally where populist governments gain legislative dominance, risking checks and balances.

Impact: Bukele’s Nuevas Ideas secured a supermajority, enabling institutional changes that critics argue weaken judicial independence and electoral oversight.

2024 Controversial Re-election of Nayib Bukele

Context: In line with global instances of leaders circumventing constitutional limits, raising debates about democratic erosion.

Impact: Despite constitutional bans, Bukele’s re-election sparked debates on democratic legitimacy and the future of electoral democracy in El Salvador.

El Salvador’s democratic trajectory cannot be understood in isolation from global electoral waves, ideological conflicts, and reforms. From early authoritarian coups influenced by regional instability, through Cold War polarisation and civil war, to post-Cold War democratic consolidation and recent populist shifts, international currents have deeply shaped El Salvador’s electoral history.

CSV-Style Table: General Elections in El Salvador (1900–2025)

2024 election turnout and outcomes are projections or pending.

Overview of El Salvador’s Electoral History (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s electoral history over the last century is a compelling narrative of authoritarianism, conflict, and eventual democratic consolidation.

From the early 1900s through to the 1970s, elections were largely ceremonial under military or military-backed regimes, with parties like the National Democratic Party (PND) and later the Partido de Conciliación Nacional (PCN) dominating through electoral manipulation and repression. Voter turnout data from this period is sparse or unreliable, reflecting the limited legitimacy of electoral processes.

The 1980s marked the beginning of significant change amid a brutal civil war. The 1984 presidential election was a tentative step toward democracy, with the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) winning amid conflict and limited freedoms. By 1989, the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) secured victory in what was considered El Salvador’s first peaceful transfer of power, signalling a shift toward multi-party democracy.

The Chapultepec Peace Accords of 1992 were pivotal, enabling the former guerrilla group FMLN to become a legitimate political party. Since then, El Salvador has held regular, competitive elections with participation from multiple parties, including ARENA, FMLN, and more recently, Nuevas Ideas, which disrupted traditional party dominance in 2019 under Nayib Bukele.

Turnout figures have generally hovered around 50–65%, reflecting moderate electoral engagement with spikes during major political transitions. The main issues shaping elections have evolved from authoritarian control and civil conflict to economic reform, crime and security, and governance concerns.

El Salvador’s electoral journey illustrates the challenges and resilience of democratic development in a country shaped by deep political divides and social upheaval. It remains an instructive case for scholars and analysts tracking the evolution of democracy in Latin America.

Global Electoral Trends in El Salvador by Decade (1900–2025)

El Salvador’s political and electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 is a compelling reflection of broader global trends in democratization, electoral innovations, and authoritarian setbacks. Each decade reveals shifts that align with both regional Latin American dynamics and wider international developments.

1900s–1910s: Early Authoritarianism and Oligarchic Control

Globally, the early 20th century was marked by limited suffrage and authoritarian regimes in many parts of the world. El Salvador mirrored this trend, with elections heavily controlled by elite oligarchies.

Global Context: Restricted voting rights, often limited to property-owning males; minimal political competition.

El Salvador: Electoral processes were nominal, serving to legitimise ruling elites rather than reflecting popular will.

1920s–1930s: Military Coups and Electoral Manipulation

This era saw the rise of military regimes and the entrenchment of authoritarian rule across Latin America and elsewhere.

Global Trend: Many countries experienced coups and the suppression of electoral competition.

El Salvador: The 1931 coup initiated decades of military dominance, with elections becoming largely ceremonial and fraudulent.

1940s–1950s: Post-War Authoritarianism and Beginnings of Electoral Reform

The aftermath of World War II triggered waves of political reorganisation worldwide. While democratisation expanded in some regions, Latin America often faced authoritarian persistence.

Global Context: The UN and allied powers promoted democratic ideals, yet Cold War politics complicated transitions.

El Salvador: Elections remained tightly controlled; opposition was suppressed, but political parties gained slight organisational strength.

1960s–1970s: Political Instability and Authoritarian Resilience

Across the globe, this period was marked by civil rights movements and struggles for democracy, but many Latin American countries, including El Salvador, endured military regimes and political repression.

Global Innovations: Introduction of universal suffrage and secret ballots in many democracies.

El Salvador: Elections were still manipulated; the military-backed National Conciliation Party maintained power amid growing unrest.

1980s: Civil War and Democratization Challenges

Globally, the 1980s witnessed a wave of pro-democracy movements, but El Salvador endured a brutal civil war, delaying political liberalisation.

Global Trend: Increasing pressure for free elections and human rights.

El Salvador: Electoral processes were disrupted; peace negotiations eventually set the stage for democratic reform.

1990s: Transition to Democracy and Electoral System Overhaul

Following peace accords, many nations consolidated democratic institutions, including proportional representation and independent electoral bodies.

Global Developments: Adoption of transparent electoral commissions, international election monitoring.

El Salvador: Established a two-round presidential system and proportional representation for the legislature; improved electoral transparency.

2000s: Technological Advances and Political Pluralism

The early 21st century saw advances in electoral technology and the growth of new political actors worldwide.

Global Innovations: Biometric voter registration, electronic voting trials.

El Salvador: Modernised voter registration; emergence of new parties challenging the traditional political order.

2010s: Political Realignments and Electoral Reforms

Worldwide, the 2010s featured increased political polarisation, with many democracies grappling with populist movements.

Global Trend: Electoral reforms aimed at enhancing inclusivity and fairness.

El Salvador: Implemented open-list proportional representation; voters gained more influence over candidate selection.

2020s: Democratic Backsliding and Consolidation of Power

Recent years have seen concerns about democratic erosion in various countries, with executives expanding their influence over electoral institutions.

Global Context: Rising authoritarian tendencies and challenges to election integrity.

El Salvador: The ruling Nuevas Ideas party consolidated control over the legislature and judiciary, sparking debates over the future of democratic norms.

El Salvador’s electoral history closely parallels global patterns: initial oligarchic control, military authoritarianism, gradual democratization with electoral innovations, followed by contemporary challenges of political dominance and democratic backsliding. Understanding these trends is essential for assessing the country’s evolving political landscape and its place within global democratic trajectories.

Example : Political Analyst Explanation — Why the 2006 Election in El Salvador Was Controversial

The 2006 presidential election in El Salvador stands out as a pivotal moment marked by deep political division and contentious allegations that called into question the integrity of the electoral process. The contest principally featured Mauricio Funes of the left-wing Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) and the right-wing Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) candidate, Rodrigo Ávila. Despite an intense campaign, the election was ultimately won by ARENA’s candidate, though not without dispute.

Several factors contributed to the controversy. Firstly, the campaign was highly polarised, reflecting broader societal fractures that lingered after the civil war ended in 1992. The FMLN’s historical ties to the guerrilla movement engendered distrust among conservative sectors, while ARENA’s long-standing incumbency raised accusations of entrenched political elitism and potential manipulation. Secondly, concerns were raised over media bias and unequal access to campaign resources, which many argued tilted the playing field in favour of ARENA.

Moreover, the voter turnout, which hovered around a modest 55%, suggested a level of public disengagement and scepticism toward the political system. This apathy was compounded by accusations of vote buying and electoral irregularities, which, although not conclusively proven, were widely discussed in public discourse. The international community observed the elections closely, urging for transparency and fairness.

Ultimately, the 2006 election underscored the fragile nature of El Salvador’s democratic institutions at the time and highlighted the challenges of moving beyond a history of conflict and authoritarianism towards a stable, inclusive democracy. The controversy surrounding the election served as a catalyst for subsequent reforms aimed at strengthening electoral oversight and fostering greater political pluralism.

Example : Journalistic Summary — The 1900 Eastern European Elections

The dawn of the 20th century saw Eastern Europe grappling with a wave of political transformation as various nations embarked on the uncertain path toward modern electoral politics. The 1900 elections in the region were emblematic of this era, characterised by a complex interplay between emerging nationalist movements, imperial influences, and autocratic regimes.

In countries such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman-controlled Balkans, electoral systems remained largely restrictive, with suffrage limited by property qualifications, gender, and ethnicity. These elections were often conducted under the watchful eye of monarchs and bureaucratic elites who sought to maintain their grip on power. Consequently, voter turnout was generally low, and genuine political competition was frequently stifled.

Despite these constraints, 1900 marked an important moment for political mobilisation. Nationalist parties and socialists began to organise more effectively, laying the groundwork for future upheavals. The elections revealed the fault lines within multi-ethnic empires, where competing loyalties to ethnic identity, religion, and class often clashed. While electoral outcomes rarely shifted power dramatically, they did provide a platform for dissent and the articulation of popular grievances.

Journalists of the time noted a growing public awareness of political rights, even if real democratic participation remained elusive. The seeds sown in the 1900 elections would later blossom into significant movements that reshaped the political landscape of Eastern Europe in the decades to come.

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