Election System and Structure in Morocco (1900–2025): From Colonial Control to Competitive Pluralism-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

Morocco's electoral system reflects a century of transformation—from colonial subjugation to constitutional monarchy, and from symbolic elections to competitive parliamentary politics. Over time, the country has adopted a mix of majoritarian and proportional representation systems, gradually expanding political pluralism and electoral fairness. This article traces the evolution of Morocco’s electoral system from 1900 to 2025 and explains the types of voting used during each historical period, including a specific example from 1948.

1900–1955: Colonial Rule and Political Suppression

During this period, Morocco was under the French and Spanish protectorates (established in 1912). Although the Moroccan monarchy continued in a symbolic role, no democratic or national electoral systems existed.

Electoral system: None for Moroccans under colonial rule.

Representation: French settlers had limited municipal voting rights; indigenous Moroccans were politically marginalised.

Democratic status: Non-existent.

Morocco in 1948

In 1948, Morocco was still a French and Spanish protectorate. No national elections were held for Moroccans:

Electoral system: None. Political power was held by colonial authorities.

Representation: Limited and racially biased, favouring French citizens.

Conclusion: 1948 did not feature any proportional, majoritarian, or mixed system for Moroccans—electoral exclusion was the norm.

1956–1970: Independence and Monarchical Control

Morocco gained independence in 1956, and King Mohammed V initiated constitutional governance. The first parliamentary elections occurred in 1960, but under heavy royal control:

System: Mixed, with appointed and indirectly elected members.

The 1963 Constitution created a bicameral parliament, but real power remained with the King.

Elections were partially competitive, but opposition was constrained and results often manipulated.

1970s–1980s: Controlled Pluralism and Electoral Engineering

Under King Hassan II, Morocco continued holding regular elections, but with tightly managed outcomes:

The electoral system combined majoritarian voting in multi-member districts.

Constituency boundaries and legal thresholds were often drawn to weaken the opposition (notably the leftist Istiqlal and USFP).

Gerrymandering and royal appointments diluted elected representation.

While technically multi-party, Morocco operated under a form of “guided democracy”, where electoral competition existed but ultimate power was reserved for the monarchy.

1990s–2000s: Gradual Democratization and System Reform

Facing growing domestic and international pressure, Morocco introduced electoral reforms:

In 1997, Morocco adopted a proportional representation (PR) system for legislative elections.

The lower house (House of Representatives) was elected via closed-list PR, using the largest remainder method in multi-member constituencies.

A national women’s quota list was introduced to boost female representation.

The 2002 and 2007 elections were regarded as more transparent, though voter turnout remained low due to scepticism about real political power.

2011–2025: Post-Arab Spring Reforms and PR Consolidation

The 2011 constitutional reforms, following the Arab Spring protests, enhanced parliamentary power and citizen rights:

The Prime Minister (Head of Government) must be chosen from the leading party in parliament.

The PR system was maintained, but reforms:

Increased the national list quotas for women and youth.

Lowered the electoral threshold (from 6% to 3% in 2021), benefiting smaller parties.

The 2021 elections saw the PR system expanded to even more local levels, with the abolition of the "national list" in favour of regional representation.

Summary Table of Electoral Systems in Morocco (1900–2025)

Morocco’s electoral journey has evolved from non-existent colonial elections to a sophisticated proportional representation system. Despite concerns over royal influence and low public trust, the system has become more inclusive, with mechanisms for gender equality, youth representation, and political diversity. While not a full liberal democracy, Morocco's electoral structure today is significantly more democratic than at any point in its modern history.

Morocco’s Transition to a Multi-Party Democratic Electoral System

Morocco presents a unique case in North Africa’s political evolution—where monarchical rule coexisted with gradual electoral pluralism rather than being overthrown by revolution or military coups. The kingdom’s path toward a multi-party or democratic electoral system was incremental, managed from above, and shaped by both internal pressures and international dynamics. This article traces Morocco’s transition into a multi-party political system and analyses how democratic practices evolved over time.

Pre-Independence and Early Political Control

Before independence in 1956, Morocco was under French and Spanish colonial control. Political representation was minimal and highly restricted under the protectorate system. There were no genuine democratic institutions or competitive elections during this period.

Initial Post-Independence Pluralism (1956–1960s)

Morocco gained independence in 1956, and King Mohammed V permitted some political openness. The first parliamentary elections were held in 1960, with the emergence of multiple political parties such as the Istiqlal Party and the National Union of Popular Forces (UNFP).

However, despite formal multi-partyism, power remained firmly concentrated in the monarchy. The king retained the authority to appoint the Prime Minister and dissolve parliament at will.

1970s–1980s: Controlled Pluralism under Authoritarian Rule

Under King Hassan II, Morocco retained a multi-party system on paper, but in practice, elections were heavily manipulated. The monarchy maintained firm control over political life through:

Electoral gerrymandering

Appointment of key officials

Suppression of dissent (especially during the so-called "Years of Lead")

Although parliamentary elections were held regularly, opposition parties faced intimidation, and civil liberties were restricted. Despite this, the political field remained fragmented with legal parties such as the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) and Justice and Development Party (PJD) eventually gaining ground.

Turning Point: 1990s Democratic Reforms

Morocco’s most significant step towards genuine multiparty democracy began in the 1990s. Facing economic challenges, social unrest, and international pressure (particularly from the EU and human rights organisations), King Hassan II initiated a series of reforms:

1992 Constitutional Reform: Expanded parliamentary powers, although the king remained dominant.

1996 Constitution: Introduced a bicameral legislature and established clearer electoral laws.

1997 Parliamentary Elections: Marked the first time opposition parties gained substantial parliamentary representation.

These changes, while limited, created more space for competitive electoral politics.

1999–2011: Modernisation under King Mohammed VI

Following King Hassan II’s death in 1999, King Mohammed VI ushered in a new era marked by cautious liberalisation:

Expanded freedom of expression and political association

Promoted women’s political participation

Allowed Islamist parties like the Justice and Development Party (PJD) to compete and eventually govern

The 2002 elections were considered the most transparent in Morocco’s history up to that point. In 2011, amidst the Arab Spring, Morocco adopted a new constitution via referendum, further enhancing the role of elected institutions.

2011 Constitution and Democratic Recalibration

The 2011 constitutional reforms were pivotal:

The king retained considerable powers but was now required to appoint the Prime Minister from the leading party in parliament.

Human rights, judicial independence, and civil liberties were formally strengthened.

The reforms were seen as a pre-emptive response to growing protest movements across the Arab world.

Following the reforms, the PJD won the 2011 and 2016 elections, leading coalition governments, a landmark for Morocco’s democratic maturity.

Morocco’s transition to a multi-party democratic electoral system began formally in the late 1950s, but meaningful democratic pluralism emerged only gradually—especially from the 1990s onwards. Though the monarchy remains a dominant force, Morocco has built a complex, semi-competitive political system with regular elections, diverse parties, and increasing civic participation.

While it is not a full liberal democracy, Morocco’s model of monarchical constitutionalism represents one of the most enduring and relatively stable attempts at democratisation in the Arab world.

Election Results and Political Outcomes in Morocco (1900–2025)

Morocco’s electoral journey from colonial rule to a constitutional monarchy with multiparty elections reflects gradual political evolution shaped by monarchy-led reforms, popular protests, and shifting party dynamics. This timeline-based analysis presents national election results, party performances, seat distributions, and voter turnout from 1900 to 2025, with a focus on key parliamentary contests.

Background: Electoral Framework

Monarchy: Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament.

Chambers: House of Representatives (lower house, directly elected) and House of Councillors (upper house, indirectly elected).

Political Parties: Legal since independence, with varying dominance from conservative, Islamist, and liberal-socialist blocs.

King’s Role: While elections determine parliamentary composition, the monarch retains significant executive powers.

 Pre-Independence Period (1900–1955)

Status: Morocco was under French (protectorate) and Spanish (north/south) colonial control.

No national elections for a Moroccan parliament occurred in this period.

1956 – Independence and Emergence of Electoral Politics

Morocco gained independence from France in 1956.

Early years saw the emergence of parties like Istiqlal Party (PI) and National Union of Popular Forces (UNFP).

Parliamentary Election Highlights (1963–2021)

1963 – First Parliamentary Election

Seats: 144

Main Parties:

Istiqlal Party (PI)

UNFP

Voter Turnout: ~84%

Outcome: Pro-monarchy independents and royalist parties formed a governing bloc.

Note: Constitution was approved by referendum a year earlier.

1977 General Election – (Example Request)

Date: June 3, 1977

Seats in House of Representatives: 264

Party Breakdown:

Constitutional Union (UC): ~56 seats

Istiqlal Party (PI): ~51 seats

Popular Movement (MP): ~45 seats

Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP): ~48 seats

Others/Independents: ~64 seats

Voter Turnout: ~82%

Outcome: No clear majority; power continued to revolve around palace-aligned figures.

Analysis: The 1977 election occurred under tightly controlled conditions with strong monarchical influence and limited political freedoms.

1997 Parliamentary Elections

Seats: 325

Main Parties:

Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP): 57 seats

Istiqlal Party (PI): 32 seats

Constitutional Union (UC): 50 seats

MP: 40 seats

Voter Turnout: 58%

Outcome: USFP-led coalition formed government; King retained appointment powers.

Significance: Marked the beginning of the “alternance”—a peaceful shift of power to opposition.

2002 Parliamentary Elections

Seats: 325

Main Winners:

USFP: 50 seats

Istiqlal: 48 seats

Justice and Development Party (PJD): 42 seats

Turnout: 51.6%

Significance: First elections under King Mohammed VI; noted for more transparency.

2011 Parliamentary Elections (Post-Arab Spring)

Seats: 395 (revised)

Winners:

PJD (Islamist party): 107 seats

Istiqlal: 60 seats

RNI: 52 seats

Turnout: 45%

Outcome: PJD led coalition government; monarchy initiated reforms and constitutional revisions.

Context: Arab Spring protests led to reforms giving parliament more powers—but the king remained key decision-maker.

2016 Parliamentary Elections

PJD: 125 seats

Authenticity and Modernity Party (PAM): 102 seats

Istiqlal (PI): 46 seats

Turnout: 43%

Outcome: PJD remained in power; political deadlock delayed government formation for months.

2021 Parliamentary Elections

Major Shift: PJD dropped from 125 to just 13 seats.

Winners:

RNI (National Rally of Independents): 102 seats

PAM: 87 seats

Istiqlal (PI): 81 seats

Turnout: 50.3%

Outcome: Aziz Akhannouch (RNI) appointed Prime Minister.

Significance: Marked collapse of Islamist party’s electoral dominance.

2025 Parliamentary Elections (Projected)

Status: Yet to occur (as of mid-2025).

Expected Themes:

Economic inequality

Youth unemployment

Education reform

Likely Contenders: RNI, PAM, Istiqlal, PJD (attempted recovery)

Forecast: RNI and PAM likely to retain prominence unless major political realignment occurs.

Summary Table: Selected Moroccan General Elections

Morocco's national elections have evolved from tightly managed, monarch-centred affairs to more competitive, transparent multiparty contests. While the monarchy continues to play a central role, parties like the Justice and Development Party (PJD), RNI, and Istiqlal have alternately shaped Morocco’s political landscape. The 2021 election was a game-changer, demonstrating how voter sentiment can swing sharply in response to governance outcomes.

Morocco’s Political Journey Through Elections (1900–2025): Major Parties, Leaders, and Electoral Outcomes

From a pre-colonial monarchy to a constitutional one, Morocco’s political history has been shaped by colonial legacies, monarchic reform, and democratic contestation. While the monarchy has remained central, political parties have increasingly vied for influence through regular, albeit controlled, elections. This article explores Morocco’s electoral evolution from 1900 to 2025, highlighting major parties, key political figures, and election outcomes.

Early 20th Century: Monarchy and Colonial Rule (1900–1956)

Context: Morocco was a sovereign kingdom under Sultan Abdelaziz, but from 1912 became a French and Spanish protectorate. During this period, there were no democratic elections, and political activity was suppressed under colonial administration.

Major Forces:

Istiqlal Party (Independence Party), founded in 1944, emerged as the primary political force advocating for Moroccan independence.

Key Leader: Allal El Fassi, a leading nationalist figure and intellectual.

Post-Independence Era and Constitutional Monarchy (1956–1990s)

Morocco gained independence in 1956. King Mohammed V began the process of modern nation-building. While elections were introduced in the 1960s, real power remained firmly with the monarchy, especially under his successor, King Hassan II.

First Elections: Held in 1960, followed by regular (though tightly controlled) legislative elections.

Major Parties:

Istiqlal Party: Retained influence as the historic nationalist party.

National Rally of Independents (RNI): A pro-palace liberal party formed in the 1970s.

Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP): A prominent leftist party that gained momentum in the 1990s.

Key Leaders:

Abderrahim Bouabid and Abbas El Fassi (USFP, Istiqlal respectively).

Ahmed Osman (RNI founder and royal in-law).

Elections during this period were often criticised for irregularities, weak party autonomy, and limited parliamentary power.

1990s–2000s: Political Opening under King Mohammed VI

King Mohammed VI ascended the throne in 1999 and introduced modest reforms aimed at enhancing governance and civil liberties.

2002 Parliamentary Election: A landmark for being more transparent.

Outcome: Fragmented parliament with no clear majority.

USFP and Istiqlal held significant roles.

2007 Election: Marked by low turnout (~37%) and political disengagement.

RNI and Istiqlal emerged as strong performers.

2011: Arab Spring and Constitutional Reform

Event: Amid regional unrest, Morocco witnessed protests demanding more democracy.

Outcome: A new constitution in 2011 promised strengthened parliamentary powers and judicial independence.

2011 Election:

Winner: Justice and Development Party (PJD), an Islamist-rooted moderate party.

Leader: Abdelilah Benkirane, who became Prime Minister.

System: Proportional representation to prevent single-party dominance.

2016 Election:

Outcome: PJD won again, increasing its seat count.

PM Appointed: After political deadlock, Saadeddine Othmani (PJD) replaced Benkirane as PM.

Opposition: Authenticity and Modernity Party (PAM), formed in 2008, emerged as a secular counterweight.

2021 Election: Dramatic Realignment

Outcome:

PJD suffered a stunning collapse, dropping from 125 to just 13 seats.

National Rally of Independents (RNI) won with 102 seats.

New Prime Minister: Aziz Akhannouch, a billionaire businessman and RNI leader.

Significance: Seen as a shift toward technocratic and pro-palace governance.

2025 Outlook and Current Political Landscape

As of 2025, Morocco’s political system remains a hybrid constitutional monarchy. Though elections are held regularly and political parties are active, the monarchy retains central authority, particularly in defence, religion, and foreign affairs.

Ruling Coalition:

RNI (centrist, pro-monarchy)

Supported by PAM and Istiqlal

Key Figures:

Aziz Akhannouch (PM, RNI)

Nizar Baraka (Istiqlal Party leader)

King Mohammed VI (monarch since 1999, still the most influential actor in Moroccan politics)

From colonial domination to controlled democracy, Morocco’s electoral history is one of cautious reform. Parties such as Istiqlal, PJD, and RNI have each shaped eras of governance, but the monarchy has remained the enduring power broker. While elections have become more competitive and technically sound, Morocco’s democracy remains partial—guided firmly from the throne.

Electoral Violence, Irregularities, and Disruptions in Morocco: 1900–2025

Morocco’s electoral history, spanning the colonial period, post-independence monarchy, and contemporary parliamentary developments, is marked by a mixture of evolving democratic practices and episodes of manipulation, boycotts, and political tensions. From 1900 to 2025, electoral irregularities and disruptions—both structural and spontaneous—have surfaced at various critical junctures.

Colonial Era and Pre-Independence Period (1900–1956)

Prior to independence in 1956, Morocco was a French protectorate (from 1912) with a limited and colonial-driven administrative structure. Elections, where they existed, were held within the narrow confines of French governance, often excluding the vast majority of Moroccans. Irregularities during this era were systemic rather than procedural—meaning most Moroccans were disenfranchised by design.

Post-Independence Era: 1960s to 1990s

Electoral Irregularities and State Interference

In the decades following independence, Morocco maintained a constitutional monarchy under King Hassan II, during which the monarchy retained significant control over the political system.

1963 & 1970 Elections: These early parliamentary elections were marred by accusations of rigging and manipulation. The 1963 elections, in particular, were followed by the suspension of parliament and the imposition of a state of exception in 1965.

1984 Elections: Widespread allegations of government interference and repression of opposition figures surfaced, as pro-monarchy parties consistently dominated the legislature.

Electoral Violence and Political Repression

Opposition groups, particularly leftist parties and Islamist movements, faced frequent harassment. Although large-scale physical violence was limited, the political environment was often coercive. Arbitrary arrests, political bans, and the use of intelligence services to weaken opponents were common tactics.

Election Boycotts and Political Protest

Notable Election Boycotts:

1977 Parliamentary Elections – Boycotted by several leftist parties, including the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP), in protest of lack of genuine political reform.

1997 Parliamentary Elections – Though more inclusive, Islamists such as Al Adl Wal Ihsane refused participation, citing corruption and lack of transparency.

2007 Parliamentary Elections – Marked by mass voter apathy (turnout below 37%), widely interpreted as a silent boycott driven by disillusionment with political elites.

Contemporary Period (2000–2025): Improvements and Lingering Issues

The accession of King Mohammed VI in 1999 brought constitutional reforms and some liberalisation. Nevertheless, irregularities persisted.

Examples of Election Irregularities:

2002 Elections – The first under the new king. While largely peaceful, international observers noted allegations of vote buying, lack of campaign finance regulation, and administrative bias favouring establishment parties.

2011 Parliamentary Elections – Held in the aftermath of the Arab Spring, these were seen as an improvement in fairness. However, reports from organisations like the National Human Rights Council highlighted concerns around:

Use of public resources by incumbents

Lack of media access for some parties

Intimidation in rural areas

2021 General Elections – Marked by a peaceful transfer of power from the moderate Islamist PJD to the liberal RNI party, but again, watchdogs cited irregular campaign financing and allegations of vote buying in certain provinces.

Delayed or Annulled Elections

1965 Parliamentary Suspension – Following civil unrest and claims of instability, King Hassan II suspended the constitution and postponed elections, ruling by decree until 1970.

Local elections in 2009 – Although not annulled nationally, multiple cases of local vote annulments occurred due to confirmed irregularities or fraud, including in regions like Settat and Safi.

Morocco’s electoral trajectory has been shaped by a gradual shift from authoritarian control to a hybrid model combining monarchy with elements of democratic representation. While post-2000 reforms have improved electoral conduct and transparency, the legacy of interference, limited press freedom, and uneven political competition continues to hinder full democratic consolidation.

Morocco’s Electoral Democracy and Reform Trajectory: 1900–2025

Morocco’s democratic evolution from the early 20th century to 2025 offers a complex picture of monarchy-led reforms, limited electoral pluralism, and periods of both cautious progress and democratic stagnation. As a constitutional monarchy with deep-rooted traditions and modern political ambitions, Morocco has navigated a unique path in balancing royal authority with democratic reform.

Early 20th Century: Monarchical Absolutism

In 1900, Morocco remained an absolute monarchy under the Alaouite dynasty. There were no electoral institutions or democratic frameworks. Governance was based on traditional Islamic law, royal decrees, and tribal allegiances. The absence of elections, representative bodies, or political parties placed Morocco firmly outside any definition of electoral democracy during this period.

The 1912 Treaty of Fez marked a dramatic shift as Morocco became a French protectorate (with Spain controlling parts of the north and south). During the colonial era (1912–1956), political participation was limited to consultative councils controlled by colonial authorities, with no meaningful form of self-rule or electoral legitimacy.

Post-Independence Foundations: 1956–1970s

Morocco gained independence in 1956 and adopted its first constitution in 1962. The monarchy, led by King Hassan II, introduced a constitutional monarchy model with a bicameral parliament. However, the king retained vast executive powers, including the ability to dissolve parliament, appoint the prime minister, and rule by decree.

While elections were introduced, they were heavily managed, with frequent allegations of manipulation, restrictions on opposition parties, and the monarchy playing a central role in political life. The 1960s and 1970s, often referred to as the “Years of Lead,” saw severe repression of dissent and limited space for genuine democratic expression.

1990s: Tentative Opening and Electoral Restructuring

The 1990s marked the beginning of cautious democratic reform. Responding to internal pressure and international scrutiny, King Hassan II began liberalising the political system:

1992 and 1996 constitutional amendments granted more powers to parliament and the judiciary.

The 1997 parliamentary elections were held under a revised electoral law, allowing greater participation by opposition parties.

The 1998 appointment of Abderrahmane Youssoufi, a former opposition leader, as prime minister marked a historic moment in Morocco’s political pluralism, though real power remained with the king.

These developments improved Morocco’s standing in global democracy indices, but democratic institutions still operated within clear boundaries set by the monarchy.

Post-2000 Reform Acceleration and Arab Spring Impact

Under King Mohammed VI, who ascended the throne in 1999, Morocco saw more deliberate reforms:

New laws improved electoral transparency and party financing.

The 2002 elections introduced a quota system to enhance female representation in parliament.

In response to the 2011 Arab Spring protests, a new constitution was adopted via referendum, promising judicial independence, stronger human rights protections, and greater parliamentary powers.

The 2011 parliamentary elections, held under the new constitution, were considered relatively free and fair. The Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) won a plurality and led the government, although the palace retained significant control through appointed ministries and royal councils.

Morocco’s Democracy Index ranking by international observers improved during this period, placing it in the “hybrid regime” or “partly free” category — reflecting its gradual but constrained democratisation.

2016–2025: Democratic Stagnation and Recentralisation

Despite earlier momentum, the last decade has witnessed democratic backsliding and increasing centralisation of power. Key developments include:

The dismissal of elected officials and the reconfiguration of ministerial powers in favour of royal appointees.

Increasing control over civil society, media, and political activism, with arrests of journalists and critics.

A weakening of parliamentary oversight and political parties’ declining credibility.

The 2021 parliamentary elections, while procedurally smooth, saw a significant drop in voter trust and participation. The PJD lost power amid signs that Morocco’s political scene was becoming more managed and technocratic.

By 2025, Morocco remains categorised as a “hybrid regime” in most democracy indices — not an outright authoritarian state, but far from a full democracy. Electoral mechanisms exist and are generally respected procedurally, but the monarchy still dominates governance, and institutional reforms have plateaued.

Morocco’s path between 1900 and 2025 reflects a balancing act between modernisation and monarchical control. Though significant reforms have occurred — particularly in the 1990s and early 2010s — genuine democratic consolidation remains elusive.

A Century of Change: Major Electoral Reforms in Morocco (1900–2025)

Morocco's political development from a colonial territory to a constitutional monarchy has been marked by waves of reform, negotiation, and adaptation. Its electoral system—once symbolic or absent—has gradually evolved into a pluralistic framework shaped by internal pressures and regional trends. This article traces the major electoral reforms in Morocco from 1900 to 2025, with particular emphasis on structural innovations, democratic milestones, and institutional turning points.

Pre-1956: Colonial Exclusion and Electoral Absence

Between 1912 and 1956, Morocco was governed under French and Spanish protectorates. During this period:

No national elections were held for indigenous Moroccans.

A dual system of governance placed French settlers and colonial administrators above local populations.

Some municipal and advisory councils were introduced, but electoral participation was restricted along racial and colonial lines.

Political representation for Moroccans was effectively non-existent.

This era represents an electoral void, with reforms only emerging after the country gained independence.

1956–1970: Independence and the Birth of Constitutional Governance

After gaining independence in 1956, King Mohammed V began laying the groundwork for a constitutional monarchy:

The 1963 Constitution introduced a bicameral parliament, featuring a House of Representatives (elected) and a Chamber of Councillors (partially appointed).

First general elections were held in 1960 and 1963, although real power remained with the monarchy.

The electoral law of the time relied on majoritarian voting in multi-member constituencies.

Suffrage was extended to all adult males (later to women in 1963), marking a significant democratic advance.

However, these reforms were limited by weak party autonomy and royal control over key institutions.

1970s–1980s: Political Engineering and Institutional Control

Under King Hassan II, Morocco experienced a period of controlled pluralism, with elections held at regular intervals but heavily influenced by the palace:

1970 Constitutional Reform increased the King’s power over the legislature, including the ability to dissolve parliament.

Electoral boundaries were drawn to disperse opposition strongholds, especially the socialist parties.

Laws ensured that appointed members and royal loyalists could outweigh opposition influence.

Voter participation was encouraged, but trust in the system remained low due to manipulation.

Though elections existed, they were often dismissed as ceremonial or engineered.

1992–1996: Foundations for Electoral Modernisation

In the early 1990s, Morocco undertook significant reforms to modernise its electoral and constitutional framework:

The 1992 and 1996 constitutional amendments enhanced the powers of parliament and introduced new mechanisms for political pluralism.

A formal electoral code was introduced in 1997, adopting a proportional representation (PR) system for the House of Representatives.

Gender representation measures were first introduced, though informal.

This period marked a pivot toward legal reform and electoral credibility, under pressure from domestic civil society and international observers.

2000s: Gender Quotas and Institutional Credibility

Under King Mohammed VI, Morocco moved towards more inclusive electoral practices:

2002 Electoral Reform introduced a national list reserved for women, with 30 seats in the lower house.

Improvements to voter registration, transparency in party finance, and the independence of the National Human Rights Council (CNDH) enhanced credibility.

The 2007 elections were judged by international observers to be broadly free and fair, despite a low turnout.

These reforms aimed to strengthen representation and institutional trust, even if the monarchy retained significant executive authority.

2011–2021: Arab Spring Reforms and Political Opening

The Arab Spring in 2011 prompted a major political recalibration in Morocco:

A new 2011 Constitution was adopted by referendum, increasing parliamentary authority and requiring the Prime Minister to be selected from the largest party in parliament.

The proportional representation system was refined:

Lowered electoral threshold to 6%, and later to 3% in 2021, enabling smaller parties to enter parliament.

Expanded youth and women’s quotas under national and regional lists.

Electoral oversight was improved through greater judicial involvement and digital voter list management.

These reforms were significant, though still framed within Morocco’s "executive monarchy" model.

2021–2025: Electoral Inclusion and System Rationalisation

The 2021 elections brought changes to the PR formula, eliminating the national list but allocating gender quotas at the regional level.

The d’Hondt method for seat allocation remained, balancing proportionality with party viability.

Voter rolls were digitised and linked to biometric identification, enhancing transparency.

Greater effort was made to include overseas Moroccans, though logistical challenges persist.

While the reforms didn’t drastically shift the power balance, they aimed to expand participation and modernise administration.

Morocco’s electoral reform trajectory from 1900 to 2025 illustrates a gradual but deliberate shift from exclusion to representation. Though royal authority continues to shape political life, Morocco has embraced key electoral reforms:

From colonial suppression to national sovereignty

From majoritarian manipulation to proportional inclusion

From token female participation to structured gender quotas

As Morocco heads into the future, sustaining electoral credibility will depend on deepening transparency, voter engagement, and institutional independence—goals that remain a work in progress.

Comparing Morocco’s Electoral Systems from 1900 to 2025: Which Era Was More Democratic?

Morocco’s political landscape and electoral systems have undergone significant transformations over the past century. From a largely autocratic monarchy in the early 1900s to a more pluralistic system by the 21st century, Morocco’s journey reflects broader trends of gradual political reform and cautious democratisation. This article compares the electoral systems in Morocco between 1900 and 2025, analysing which period exhibited greater democratic qualities.

Morocco’s Electoral System in the Early 20th Century (1900–1950s)

At the dawn of the 20th century, Morocco was an absolute monarchy under Sultan Abdelhafid and his successors, with limited institutional political participation for the broader population. The country lacked a formal electoral system in the modern sense. Political power was concentrated in the hands of the monarch and elite, and any consultations with representative bodies were minimal and largely advisory.

During the French and Spanish protectorates (1912–1956), Morocco was governed primarily under colonial administration, which suppressed indigenous political expression. Electoral mechanisms, if any, were controlled by colonial authorities, and elections were either non-existent or restricted to limited, often settler-based councils that excluded the majority Moroccan population.

In this period, political participation by Moroccan citizens was severely constrained. The system was essentially majoritarian but non-democratic, with no meaningful suffrage for the indigenous population. Representation was non-existent for most Moroccans, and the country functioned largely without competitive elections.

The Emergence of Electoral Politics (1956–1990s)

Following independence in 1956, Morocco began establishing a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. The 1962 constitution introduced multi-party elections for the Chamber of Representatives. However, the monarch retained significant executive power, including the right to dissolve parliament and appoint the prime minister.

Elections during this period were often criticised for lacking genuine competitiveness. While several parties participated, the electoral process was heavily influenced by the monarchy, with allegations of vote-rigging, limited media freedom, and restrictions on opposition parties. The voting system was a mixture of first-past-the-post and proportional representation, designed to favour establishment parties.

Despite these flaws, the period marked a clear step towards institutionalised elections and greater political pluralism compared to the pre-independence era. Citizens gained formal suffrage rights, though political freedoms remained limited.

Morocco’s Electoral System in the Contemporary Era (2000–2025)

The turn of the millennium saw further reforms aimed at strengthening democratic institutions. The 2011 constitutional reform, prompted by the Arab Spring protests, notably expanded parliamentary powers and enhanced the independence of the judiciary. The electoral system was adjusted to improve proportional representation and inclusivity.

Today, Morocco employs a mixed electoral system combining proportional representation and majoritarian elements to elect the 395 members of the House of Representatives. The voting age is 18, with universal suffrage guaranteed for Moroccan citizens. Multiple political parties compete freely, and elections are conducted under international observation in some cases.

Nevertheless, challenges remain. The monarchy still wields significant influence over political affairs, and opposition parties face constraints. Media freedoms and civil liberties have improved but are not fully free. Electoral transparency has increased, but critics argue the political playing field is uneven.

Which System Was More Democratic?

Comparing Morocco’s electoral system across these eras, it is clear that the contemporary system (2000–2025) exhibits more democratic features. Unlike the early 20th century, when elections were non-existent or tightly controlled by colonial powers and monarchs, today’s system provides universal suffrage, competitive multi-party elections, and constitutional protections for political participation.

While imperfections persist—particularly the overarching role of the monarchy and limits on political freedoms—the formal institutional framework is markedly more open and representative. The 2011 constitutional reforms and subsequent electoral adjustments have enhanced checks and balances and expanded citizen participation.

In contrast, the pre-independence and early post-independence periods were characterised by restricted political rights, limited electoral competition, and centralised power. These features diminish the democratic legitimacy of elections in those times.

Morocco’s electoral system has evolved from near-total autocracy with no genuine elections in the early 1900s, through a semi-authoritarian multi-party system post-independence, to a more pluralistic though still imperfect democracy in the 21st century. The period from 2000 to 2025 offers a more democratic electoral environment compared to earlier times, reflecting Morocco’s gradual political liberalisation and ongoing reforms.

First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century: Countries and Electoral Systems

The 20th century witnessed the most significant expansion of democracy in recorded history. Across continents, monarchies gave way to republics, colonies became sovereign nations, and authoritarian regimes transformed into electoral democracies. This article identifies key countries that held their first democratic elections in the 20th century, along with the voting systems used.

Defining a Democratic Election

For the purposes of this analysis, a "democratic election" refers to a multi-party general election with universal or near-universal adult suffrage, held under a competitive electoral system, and resulting in representative governance.

Countries with First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century

???????? Europe

???????? Asia

???????? Africa

???????? Latin America

???????? Eastern Europe & Post-Soviet States

Trends and Takeaways

Proportional Representation (PR) was the most commonly adopted system for newly democratic countries—particularly in Europe, Africa, and Latin America—due to its perceived fairness and ability to include smaller parties.

FPTP was frequently inherited in former British colonies (e.g. India, Ghana, Kenya), offering simplicity but often reducing representational diversity.

In many countries, especially in post-authoritarian or post-colonial contexts, early elections were transitional and not always sustained (e.g. Spain 1931, Chile 1925, Congo 1960).

Universal suffrage expanded unevenly: while some countries held early elections (e.g. Argentina 1916), full suffrage for all adults often came decades later.

The 20th century marked the rise of electoral democracy across the globe, often spurred by war, decolonisation, or revolution. These initial democratic elections laid the groundwork—sometimes fragile—for parliamentary governance, party politics, and public accountability. Whether under PR, FPTP, or mixed systems, these electoral firsts defined the trajectories of modern states and remain milestones in global democratic development.

Timeline of Major Elections and Political Turning Points in Morocco (1900–2025)

Morocco’s electoral history reflects a unique blend of monarchy, colonial legacy, and gradual democratisation. This timeline highlights the country’s major elections and political turning points from the early 20th century to 2025, charting its evolution from a pre-colonial kingdom to a constitutional monarchy with competitive—though tightly managed—elections.

Pre-Independence Period (1900–1956)

1900–1912 – Absolute Monarchy under Sultan Abdelaziz

Morocco was a traditional Islamic monarchy. No elections or political parties existed.

Governance was based on tribal alliances and the authority of the Sultan.

1912 – Treaty of Fez and Beginning of French/Spanish Protectorate

Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates.

Political activity was limited, with no elections under colonial rule.

1944 – Formation of the Istiqlal Party

Morocco’s first major nationalist party called for independence from France.

Marked the beginning of organised political opposition to colonial rule.

 Post-Independence Electoral Milestones (1956–1999)

1956 – Moroccan Independence Restored

Sultan Mohammed V declared independence from France.

Political pluralism emerged, but the monarchy remained dominant.

1960 – First Municipal Elections

Local-level elections held under close royal oversight.

1963 – First Legislative Elections

Morocco’s inaugural parliamentary elections under a constitutional monarchy.

Key parties: Istiqlal, National Union of Popular Forces (UNFP).

Result: Divided parliament; King Hassan II retained significant power.

1970–1984 – Repeatedly Flawed Elections and Royal Control

Series of parliamentary elections marked by boycotts, manipulation, and weak opposition.

1975: Green March launched by King Hassan II to claim Western Sahara—a national unifier that muted political dissent.

1993 – Slight Opening in Political Space

Multiparty elections with improved transparency.

Islamist candidates and independents began gaining traction.

Democratic Reform and Political Pluralism (1999–2011)

1999 – Accession of King Mohammed VI

Promised political reform, human rights, and economic liberalisation.

2002 – First Elections under New King

Held with greater transparency.

Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) led the ruling coalition.

Signalled a mild shift toward fairer elections, though turnout remained low.

2007 – Record-Low Voter Turnout (~37%)

Public disillusionment with political parties became evident.

National Rally of Independents (RNI) and Istiqlal gained prominence.

 Arab Spring and Constitutional Reform (2011–2016)

2011 – Mass Protests and New Constitution

In response to Arab Spring protests, King Mohammed VI announced reforms.

A new constitution promised strengthened parliamentary powers and judicial independence.

2011 Parliamentary Election

Justice and Development Party (PJD) won the most seats.

Abdelilah Benkirane (PJD) appointed Prime Minister—first Islamist-led government under the monarchy.

2015 – Local and Regional Elections

PJD consolidated its influence at local level, while opposition PAM gained ground.

Party Realignment and Decline of Islamists (2016–2025)

2016 – PJD Wins Again but Faces Stalemate

Despite winning, PJD struggled to form a government due to royal intervention.

Saadeddine Othmani eventually appointed Prime Minister.

2021 – PJD Crushed in Parliamentary Elections

Dramatic collapse: from 125 to just 13 seats.

National Rally of Independents (RNI) emerged as the largest party.

Aziz Akhannouch (RNI leader and billionaire businessman) became Prime Minister.

2022–2025 – Technocratic Governance and Opposition Reshuffling

Coalition led by RNI, PAM, and Istiqlal focused on economic recovery and digital reform.

Traditional parties, including PJD and USFP, reassessed strategy.

Minor parties gained visibility, but voter disengagement remained a concern.

Summary: Key Political Turning Points

From absolute monarchy and colonial rule to constitutional monarchy with regular elections, Morocco's electoral history is one of slow but continuous evolution. Although democratic practices have improved, the monarchy remains the dominant political force. Major parties like Istiqlal, PJD, and RNI have each played pivotal roles across different decades, with the 2021 elections symbolising a new phase of technocratic governance and voter realignment.

Major Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Morocco (1900–2025)

Morocco’s political and electoral history over the past century has been profoundly shaped by key events ranging from colonial imposition to independence, constitutional reforms, and popular uprisings. These moments have collectively influenced the trajectory of democracy in the country, navigating between authoritarian monarchy and gradual political liberalisation.

Establishment of the French Protectorate (1912)

The imposition of the French protectorate in 1912 marked a critical turning point. While Morocco retained nominal sovereignty under Sultan Mohammed V, political power shifted decisively to French colonial administrators. Elections during this period were limited, and the colonial administration excluded the majority of Moroccans from political participation, stalling democratic development.

Morocco’s Independence and First Post-Colonial Elections (1956–1963)

Morocco gained independence from France in 1956, sparking a new era of national political mobilisation. The first post-independence parliamentary elections in 1963 introduced limited democratic processes under King Hassan II, who maintained strong royal authority. Although elections were held, the monarchy controlled political competition tightly, limiting genuine pluralism.

Constitutional Crisis and State of Exception (1965)

Following political unrest and opposition challenges, King Hassan II declared a state of exception in 1965, suspending parliament and ruling by decree for several years. This event interrupted democratic processes and delayed elections until 1970, reflecting a retreat from democracy amid political instability.

Adoption of the 1972 and 1992 Constitutions

1972 Constitution: Reintroduced a parliamentary system but preserved extensive powers for the king, reinforcing a limited democracy with strong monarchical oversight.

1992 Constitution: Marked a step toward political liberalisation with the introduction of multi-party elections and increased parliamentary authority, though the monarchy remained dominant.

1990s Political Reforms and Election Pluralism

Throughout the 1990s, Morocco witnessed gradual political opening:

Increased allowance for opposition parties.

Greater media freedoms.

More inclusive parliamentary elections.

These reforms expanded democratic participation but still faced constraints from royal prerogatives.

The Arab Spring and the 2011 Constitutional Reform

Inspired by regional uprisings, Morocco underwent significant political reform in 2011:

King Mohammed VI introduced a new constitution granting increased powers to the prime minister and parliament.

Enhanced protection of civil liberties and judicial independence.

The first elections under this constitution took place later that year, seen as a milestone in democratic advancement.

2021 Parliamentary Elections and Political Transition

The 2021 elections marked a significant democratic moment:

The Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) suffered a major defeat after a decade in power.

A peaceful transfer of power to the liberal National Rally of Independents (RNI) occurred.

This election demonstrated political competitiveness and voter agency, although challenges around electoral integrity and campaign financing remained.

Morocco’s democratic journey from 1900 to 2025 reflects a complex interplay of colonial legacy, royal authority, political reform, and popular demands for representation. While democracy has never been fully consolidated, major electoral events — from independence to constitutional reforms and the Arab Spring — have incrementally reshaped Morocco’s political landscape toward greater pluralism and participation.

The coming years will be critical in determining whether these reforms translate into a deeper, more robust democracy.

CSV-Style Table: General Elections in Morocco (1900–2025)

Morocco’s Electoral Evolution: Monarchy, Reform, and Political Balancing

Morocco’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 reflects a country balancing monarchy, modernisation, and political pluralism. Under the Alaouite monarchy, early 20th-century Morocco was a sultanate with no electoral tradition. The 1912 Treaty of Fez placed much of Morocco under French and Spanish colonial control, pausing national sovereignty and representative politics.

Following independence in 1956, King Mohammed V initiated constitutional rule, though real power remained firmly in royal hands. Morocco’s first parliamentary elections in 1963 offered symbolic pluralism but were overshadowed by royal control and intermittent suspensions of parliament.

From the 1970s to the 1990s, elections continued under a proportional representation system dominated by pro-palace parties. Though technically multi-party, elections lacked competitiveness and were marred by allegations of manipulation.

Significant reforms began under King Mohammed VI in the 2000s. The 2002 and 2007 elections allowed more genuine party competition, but public disillusionment led to record-low turnout. The Arab Spring in 2011 prompted further constitutional reforms, resulting in the Justice and Development Party (PJD) taking power in a more empowered parliamentary setting.

Yet by 2021, the PJD suffered a dramatic collapse, with the liberal-leaning RNI rising to power amid calls for economic growth, pandemic recovery, and youth employment. Voter turnout rebounded slightly, indicating cautious optimism.

The next general election in 2025 is expected to maintain the mixed proportional system, now recalibrated to distribute seats more equitably. However, major challenges remain: improving trust in institutions, lowering unemployment, and ensuring the monarchy’s reform agenda aligns with democratic accountability.

Global Electoral Trends in Morocco by Decade: 1900–2025

Morocco’s electoral landscape over the past 125 years has been shaped by a dynamic interplay of monarchic tradition, colonial influence, gradual democratisation, and episodes of authoritarian retrenchment. Below is a decade-by-decade summary highlighting key trends in democratization, electoral innovations, and setbacks.

1900s–1910s: Absolute Monarchy and Colonial Encroachment

Morocco remained an absolute monarchy under Sultan Abdelaziz and later Sultan Yusef, with no electoral institutions or democratic processes. The 1912 Treaty of Fez ushered in French and Spanish protectorates, further reducing any prospects for local political autonomy or electoral development.

1920s–1940s: Protectorate Era and Limited Political Expression

During the protectorate period, political life was dominated by colonial authorities. Advisory councils were established, but these bodies were unelected or had limited electoral participation, serving primarily to rubber-stamp colonial policies. Indigenous political activism began to emerge but was tightly controlled and repressed.

1950s: Push for Independence and Political Mobilisation

The 1950s saw growing nationalist movements demanding independence. While no formal elections were held, this decade laid the groundwork for future political pluralism by mobilising popular support and forming early political parties such as the Istiqlal Party.

1960s: Introduction of Constitutional Monarchy and Controlled Elections

Morocco gained independence in 1956 and adopted a constitution in 1962 that established a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. The first parliamentary elections took place, but were tightly managed under King Hassan II’s strong executive control. Electoral competition was limited, and opposition parties faced repression.

1970s–1980s: Authoritarian Consolidation and Electoral Manipulation

This period was marked by political instability and “Years of Lead,” with significant human rights abuses and crackdowns on dissent. Elections continued but were largely controlled to ensure royal dominance. Electoral innovations were minimal, with political pluralism effectively suppressed.

1990s: Gradual Democratization and Political Opening

Responding to internal pressures and global democratic trends, Morocco introduced multi-party elections and amended its constitution. The 1997 elections allowed greater opposition participation, and the appointment of a prime minister from the opposition symbolised tentative power-sharing. Electoral reforms improved transparency and inclusiveness, albeit within limits.

2000s: Institutional Reforms and Increased Political Pluralism

King Mohammed VI’s reign brought new reforms, including proportional representation, enhanced media freedoms, and gender quotas in parliament. Electoral commissions gained more independence, and voter registration improved. The period marked significant electoral innovation and cautious democratic progress.

2010s: Arab Spring and Constitutional Overhaul

The 2011 Arab Spring protests prompted Morocco to adopt a new constitution, which expanded parliamentary powers and enshrined more rights. Subsequent elections were considered more competitive and transparent. The rise of the Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) demonstrated increasing electoral pluralism, though the monarchy retained significant authority.

2020s: Democratic Backsliding and Managed Politics

Recent years have seen a slowdown in democratic gains, with increased control over political institutions, media, and civil society. While elections remain procedurally sound, genuine competition and political freedoms face constraints. Voter apathy and declining party credibility have also characterised this decade.

Morocco’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 is one of cautious democratization interspersed with periods of authoritarian rollback. From absolute monarchy and colonial repression to modest reforms and constitutional innovation, Morocco’s electoral system reflects the country’s ongoing balancing act between tradition and modernity.

Write like a political analyst explaining why the 2006 election in Morocco was controversial

The 2006 parliamentary election in Morocco stands as a pivotal moment fraught with controversy, revealing the nuanced tensions between burgeoning democratic aspirations and entrenched monarchical control. From a political analyst’s perspective, several factors underpin this contentious electoral process.

Firstly, the election took place within a political framework still heavily influenced by King Mohammed VI’s authority. Despite constitutional reforms promising greater political pluralism, the monarchy’s enduring influence over the electoral administration and the judiciary cast a long shadow on the integrity of the vote.

Moreover, the 2006 elections were criticised for systemic irregularities such as allegations of vote-buying, manipulation of voter lists, and uneven media coverage skewed in favour of pro-government parties. Opposition groups, particularly the Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD), voiced concerns that the playing field was far from level.

Importantly, this election highlighted the limitations of Morocco’s electoral institutions, where a lack of independent oversight mechanisms allowed administrative bias to persist. The ruling elite’s grip on local authorities further compounded these challenges, undermining public trust.

Nevertheless, the 2006 polls also represented a significant step forward compared to previous decades, with increased voter turnout and a wider spectrum of parties participating. The controversy surrounding the elections thus encapsulates Morocco’s ongoing struggle to reconcile authoritarian legacies with democratic reforms — a balancing act that continues to define its political landscape.

Example :

Summarise the 1900 Eastern European elections in a journalistic tone

At the dawn of the 20th century, elections across Eastern Europe were emblematic of a region caught between tradition and modernity, often marked by limited suffrage and autocratic rule. Throughout countries such as Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Balkans, electoral processes varied widely but generally favoured the elite.

In Russia, the aftermath of the 1905 Revolution saw the establishment of the Duma, a parliamentary body intended to placate public unrest. However, electoral laws heavily favoured pro-monarchy conservatives, disenfranchising large segments of the population, including peasants and minorities.

Meanwhile, in Austria-Hungary, complex electoral systems reflected the empire’s ethnic diversity but struggled to deliver genuine representation. Voting rights remained restricted, and political parties often represented narrow aristocratic interests.

In the Balkans, emerging nation-states experimented with various electoral models, but elections were frequently marred by intimidation, limited voter participation, and political manipulation.

Overall, the 1900 elections in Eastern Europe underscored the region’s tentative steps towards democracy, constrained by imperial legacies and social hierarchies. These early ballots laid the groundwork for the profound political upheavals that would define the coming decades.

Disclaimer – ElectionAnalyst.com

ElectionAnalyst.com is a globally accessible, independent civic research and data analysis platform, authored by Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu, Global Policy Analyst, Politician, and Social Entrepreneur. This platform presents election-related information, systems, results, and democratic developments from 1900 to 2025 for all recognized countries, with the goal of fostering public education, research, and transparency.

1. Educational and Civic Purpose

All content on ElectionAnalyst.com is produced for:

Academic and policy research

Civic engagement and democratic awareness

Historical and journalistic reference

The website is not affiliated with any electoral commission or government agency, nor does it advocate for specific political ideologies, parties, or governments.

2. No Legal or Political Liability

All data is presented in good faith, derived from public records, historical archives, and expert analysis.

ElectionAnalyst.com and its author do not accept legal responsibility for any unintended inaccuracy, interpretation, or third-party misuse of data.

The platform does not intervene in any national electoral process, nor does it provide services for electoral litigation, consulting, or political campaigning.

3. User Responsibility and Contributions

Any public comment, suggestion, or submission remains the sole legal responsibility of the contributor.

Users and researchers must independently verify content before relying on it for official, legal, or governmental use.

4. Copyright Protection

All intellectual content on this site is the property of Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu and protected under:

© 2025 ElectionAnalyst.com | All Rights Reserved

Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works

EU Digital Services Act (DSA)

Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)

WIPO Copyright Treaty

Content may be cited for non-commercial use with attribution, but may not be copied, sold, scraped, or used for AI training without prior written consent.

5. International Legal Protection

This platform is legally shielded by:

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Freedom of Expression)

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), Article 10

European Union Fundamental Rights Charter

As such:

No foreign government, political party, or institution may impose legal threats, censorship, or data requests on this platform unless presented through verified, lawful international mechanisms such as EU data court orders or UN-recognised tribunals.

6. Content Challenges & Dispute Process

If any individual or institution believes that content is:

Factually incorrect

Unlawfully infringing

Violating rights

You may submit a formal complaint with valid documentation to:

legal@electionanalyst.com

Our legal team will review and respond accordingly under applicable international law.

Official Contact:
 Email: editor@electionanalyst.com
 Website Author: Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu (Analyst, Exiled Politician, International Business Law Specialist)

Email: dipu@countrypolicy.com