The Evolution of Ethiopia's Electoral System (1900–2025): From Imperial Edicts to Ethnic Federalism-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

Ethiopia’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 is not a linear tale of democratic development, but rather a complex trajectory shaped by imperial legacies, revolutionary upheavals, federal restructuring, and episodes of democratisation and backsliding. The structure and system of voting have mirrored the country's shifting political regimes — from monarchy to Marxist military rule, and eventually, to an ethnic federal republic. Here is a detailed account of the electoral systems used across major historical phases.

Imperial Era (1900–1974): Absence of Electoral Democracy

During the reign of Emperor Menelik II and his successors, Ethiopia was an absolute monarchy. There were no formal electoral processes in place — governance was conducted through imperial decrees, feudal appointments, and traditional structures of nobility and church. Even after the 1931 Constitution under Emperor Haile Selassie, which nominally introduced a parliament, members of the upper chamber were appointed by the emperor, while the lower house remained largely symbolic.

Electoral system: None
Voting & representation: Appointed positions; no universal suffrage; no formal voting mechanisms.

In 1955, a revised constitution offered a semblance of electoral reform, allowing for the election of some members to the Chamber of Deputies. However, the voting was limited to a narrow elite, and the emperor maintained overriding authority.

System in 1955–1974: Limited majoritarian (single-member district) voting for lower house, but highly restricted and undemocratic.

Derg Regime (1974–1991): Revolutionary Rule without Elections

After the overthrow of the monarchy in 1974, the Derg military junta abolished all constitutional structures. Under Mengistu Haile Mariam, Ethiopia became a Marxist-Leninist state. Elections were suspended entirely, and governance occurred through military councils and centrally appointed revolutionary committees.

Electoral system: None
Representation: Revolutionary centralism; no elections; one-party Marxist rule.

A short-lived 1987 constitution established the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) and introduced a single-party election structure under the Workers' Party of Ethiopia. Though a National Shengo (Assembly) was created, elections were held in a controlled and non-competitive environment.

System in 1987: Majoritarian under one-party rule (not democratic)
Type of voting: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP), but only for state-sanctioned candidates.

Federal Democratic Republic (1991–2025): Ethnic Federalism and Pluralism (in principle)

Following the fall of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) established a federal system based on ethnic regions. The 1995 Constitution introduced multi-party elections with universal suffrage and a bicameral legislature:

House of Peoples' Representatives (HoPR) – Lower house elected by the public.

House of Federation – Upper house with representatives from each of the ethnically defined regional states.

Electoral System from 1995 to 2021

Voting system: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Constituencies: Single-member districts

Representation: Majoritarian (winner-takes-all in each district)

Frequency: National elections every five years

Despite the formal adoption of FPTP, elections were dominated by the EPRDF and its allies, with reports of intimidation, media control, and harassment of opposition groups, particularly in 2005 and 2010.

Notable Election – 2005

This election was among the most contested and competitive in Ethiopia’s history. The opposition made significant gains, but post-election violence and subsequent crackdowns revealed the limitations of democratic competition under the majoritarian system.

Post-2018 Political Shift and the 2021 Election

Under Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, Ethiopia saw a merger of the ruling coalition into the Prosperity Party and a renewed attempt at opening democratic space. The 2021 election, though marred by conflict in the Tigray region, featured over 40 political parties and was framed as a democratic milestone.

System in 2021: Still FPTP
Voting: Universal suffrage, with paper ballots in single-member districts
Representation: Majoritarian, though contested in fairness

Forecast for 2025 and Electoral Reform Discourse

As of 2025, Ethiopia continues to operate under the First-Past-The-Post system, though there have been ongoing discussions about moving towards a Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) or Proportional Representation (PR) system to better reflect Ethiopia’s multi-ethnic diversity and prevent winner-take-all distortions in divided regions.

However, implementation is contingent on political stability, consensus among regional actors, and peace in conflict-prone areas.

From autocratic imperial rule to a complex federal system rooted in ethnicity, Ethiopia’s electoral system has evolved significantly, though not without setbacks. The dominant use of FPTP in a multi-ethnic state has been widely debated. As Ethiopia approaches 2025, prospects for reform toward more inclusive and representative systems remain on the horizon, but their realisation depends heavily on broader political reconciliation and democratic commitment.

Key Summary: Electoral System by Period

When Did Ethiopia Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

Ethiopia’s formal transition to a multi-party electoral system began in the early 1990s, following decades of imperial rule, military dictatorship, and revolutionary upheaval. However, the journey toward a genuinely democratic order has been complex, uneven, and often marked by periods of political repression.

Historical Context: From Empire to Revolution

Prior to the 1990s, Ethiopia had no meaningful history of competitive elections or multiparty politics. The country was ruled by Emperor Haile Selassie until he was overthrown in 1974 by the Marxist-Leninist Derg military regime led by Mengistu Haile Mariam. Under the Derg, Ethiopia was a one-party authoritarian state characterised by centralised control, censorship, and the absence of electoral pluralism. The regime formally established the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE) in 1984, but elections under the Derg were neither free nor competitive.

The Pivotal Transition: 1991 and Beyond

The real turning point came in 1991 when the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of ethnic-based rebel movements led by the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), overthrew the Derg regime. This ushered in a new political era.

In 1994, a transitional government led by the EPRDF organised a national conference that drafted a new constitution, which was ratified in 1995. The 1995 Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia established the framework for multiparty democracy, federalism based on ethnicity, and regular elections. It also guaranteed freedoms of expression, association, and the right to vote.

The First Multi-Party Elections: 1995

Ethiopia held its first multi-party general election in 1995, under the new constitutional order. However, this election was boycotted by several opposition parties, and the EPRDF won a sweeping majority. The vote marked the beginning of a nominally democratic system, but in practice, the EPRDF maintained a dominant-party state for over two decades.

Elections and Political Reality (1995–2018)

Subsequent elections (2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015) featured increasing political participation but were marred by credible allegations of vote rigging, state repression, media censorship, and the arrest of opposition figures.

The 2005 election was particularly significant. It was the most competitive in Ethiopia’s history at the time and saw major gains for the opposition. However, post-election protests were violently suppressed, with security forces killing nearly 200 demonstrators. The democratic opening seen during the campaign was reversed soon after the EPRDF reasserted full control.

By the 2015 general elections, the EPRDF and its allies won all 547 parliamentary seats, highlighting the absence of meaningful pluralism despite the multi-party framework.

Recent Developments: Reform and Setbacks

In 2018, Abiy Ahmed became Prime Minister following widespread protests against the EPRDF’s rule. His government introduced a wave of reforms, including the release of political prisoners, legalisation of previously banned opposition parties, and a more open civic space. The ruling coalition was rebranded as the Prosperity Party in 2019, intended as a pan-Ethiopian party superseding ethnic divisions.

The first general election under Abiy’s leadership was held in 2021, but it was delayed multiple times and boycotted in some regions due to conflict, particularly the civil war in Tigray. While the Prosperity Party secured a large majority, ongoing violence, ethnic tensions, and constraints on press freedom meant that questions over the country’s democratic credentials persisted.

Ethiopia officially transitioned to a multi-party electoral system in 1995, following the fall of the Derg regime and the adoption of a new constitution. However, the reality has been more complex. Despite holding regular elections, the country has struggled to realise the full democratic potential of its constitutional order. Periods of reform have often been followed by regression, and the promise of multiparty democracy remains fragile in the face of ethno-political fragmentation, authoritarian tendencies, and armed conflict.

National Election Results in Ethiopia (1900–2025): A Political and Historical Overview

Ethiopia’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 reflects a unique and complex evolution—shaped by monarchy, military rule, socialist revolution, federal restructuring, and multiparty democratic experimentation. Below is a chronologically structured summary of major general elections, when held, their outcomes (where verifiable), party seat distributions, and voter turnouts.

Pre-1974 Period: No Electoral Democracy Under Monarchy

1900–1973:
Ethiopia was an absolute monarchy under Emperor Menelik II and later Emperor Haile Selassie. There were no national elections with universal suffrage. The 1931 Constitution (Ethiopia’s first) and 1955 Revised Constitution introduced parliamentary structures, but members were largely appointed or selected by nobility, not elected.

1974–1991: The Derg Era – No Competitive Elections

1974: Military coup overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie. The Derg regime suspended constitutional governance.

1987: Under the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE), a one-party election was held for the National Shengo.

Date: 14 June 1987

Party: Workers’ Party of Ethiopia (WPE – Marxist-Leninist)

Seats: WPE won all 835 seats.

Turnout: Claimed 90% turnout.

Nature: Single-party election under the 1987 constitution.

1991–2025: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia – Multiparty Elections

After the fall of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) took power. The 1995 constitution introduced a federal system and regular elections.

1995 General Election

Date: 7 May 1995

Main Party: EPRDF

Seats Won:

EPRDF: 471 of 547 seats

lies and regional parties: Remaining seats
Al

Opposition Boycott: Major opposition parties boycotted.

Turnout: ~61%

2000 General Election

Date: 14 May & 31 August 2000

EPRDF: 472 seats

Opposition Parties: ~40 seats combined

Turnout: ~90% (officially reported)

2005 General Election

Date: 15 May 2005

Notable Shift: Most competitive election in decades.

EPRDF: 327 seats

Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD): 109 seats

United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (UEDF): 52 seats

Turnout: ~90%

Aftermath: Post-election violence and arrests of opposition leaders.

2010 General Election

Date: 23 May 2010

EPRDF: 499 of 547 seats

Opposition: Only a few seats (e.g., Medrek: 2 seats)

Turnout: 93% (official)

Criticism: EU observers cited lack of a level playing field.

2015 General Election

Date: 24 May 2015

EPRDF: 500+ seats (won all 547 seats including with allies)

Opposition: 0 seats

Turnout: ~93%

Nature: Considered non-competitive by international observers.

2021 General Election

Date: 21 June & 30 September 2021 (staggered due to security issues)

New Ruling Party: Prosperity Party (formed from EPRDF merger under PM Abiy Ahmed)

Seats Won:

Prosperity Party: 410 of 436 contested seats

Opposition (e.g., Ethiopian Citizens for Social Justice – Ezema): ~10–15 seats

Turnout: ~90% (in participating regions)

Notes: Tigray region did not participate due to conflict.

2025 General Election (Projected/Expected)

Status: As of mid-2025, Ethiopia is expected to hold another general election, but confirmation depends on peace developments in conflict zones and electoral commission readiness. No verified results yet available.

Summary Table of Key Elections (1995–2021)

Ethiopia’s electoral journey reflects authoritarian tendencies even under nominally democratic frameworks. From imperial rule to a tightly controlled party state, and into a federal multiparty system, Ethiopia’s elections have often been marred by suppression, boycott, or conflict. While 2005 marked a brief democratic opening, the years that followed reverted to dominant-party rule. The future of Ethiopian electoral democracy will hinge on inclusive reforms, conflict resolution, and genuine pluralism.

Ethiopia's Electoral Journey from 1900 to 2025: Major Parties, Leaders, and Political Outcomes

Ethiopia’s political history, stretching from 1900 to 2025, reflects a complex and often turbulent path from imperial rule to a multi-party electoral system. The country's leadership and party dynamics evolved dramatically over the 20th and early 21st centuries, shaped by monarchy, revolution, military dictatorship, ethnic federalism, and aspirations toward democracy. This article offers a timeline of the major political parties, leaders, and electoral outcomes across key periods in Ethiopian history.

Pre-1974: Imperial Rule and Absence of Electoral Parties

Key Leader: Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930–1974)

Political Parties: None – Absolute monarchy

Outcome: No democratic elections. Governance was centralised under the emperor, with a feudal structure and appointments made by the Crown.

Although a parliament existed after the 1931 Constitution (and was expanded in the 1955 Constitution), elections were tightly controlled. Candidates were typically landowners or aristocrats, with no formal political parties.

1974–1991: The Derg Military Regime

Key Leaders:

Mengistu Haile Mariam (Head of State and Chairman of the Derg from 1977–1991)

Political Parties:

Commission for Organising the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia (COPWE) (1984)

Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE) (1987–1991)

Outcome: One-party communist state

In 1987, under Mengistu, a new constitution established the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The WPE was declared the sole legal party, and elections were held in 1987—but were neither free nor competitive. The regime collapsed in 1991 following civil war and insurgent advances.

1991–2019: EPRDF Dominance and Federalism

Key Leaders:

Meles Zenawi (1991–2012)

Hailemariam Desalegn (2012–2018)

Dominant Party Coalition:

Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)

Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF)

Amhara Democratic Party (ADP)

Oromo Democratic Party (ODP)

Southern Ethiopian People’s Democratic Movement (SEPDM)

Opposition Parties:

Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD)

Oromo Federalist Congress (OFC)

Ethiopian Democratic Party (EDP)

Key Elections:

1995 & 2000 Elections:
Boycotted or minimally participated in by opposition. EPRDF won over 90% of seats.

2005 General Election:
Marked the largest opposition participation.

CUD gained around 109 seats out of 547

EPRDF still secured majority, but post-election violence and arrests tarnished the result.

2010 Election:
EPRDF won 545 of 547 seats — widely criticised for intimidation and media control.

2015 Election:
EPRDF won 100% of parliamentary seats, drawing international criticism for lack of electoral fairness.

2019–Present: Political Realignment and Rise of Prosperity Party

Key Leader:

Abiy Ahmed Ali (Prime Minister from 2018–present)

Major Party:

Prosperity Party (PP) – formed in 2019 by merging the constituent parties of the EPRDF (excluding the TPLF)

Opposition:

National Movement of Amhara (NaMA)

Oromo Liberation Front (OLF)

Ethiopian Citizens for Social Justice (EZEMA)

2021 General Election:

Outcome:

Prosperity Party won 410 of 436 contested federal parliamentary seats

Voting was delayed in several regions (including Tigray) due to conflict

Despite logistical challenges and active regional conflicts, the election was touted by the government as a democratic milestone. However, critics cited repression of opposition candidates and lack of inclusiveness.

Looking Ahead to 2025:

As of 2025, Ethiopia remains a country in political flux. While democratic frameworks exist, persistent ethnic tensions, armed conflict in parts of the country, and restrictions on political dissent have limited the robustness of its electoral democracy.

From emperors to elected officials, Ethiopia's political transformation has been shaped by war, ideology, ethnicity, and a strong executive. Although steps toward democratic pluralism have been attempted—especially in the 2005 and 2021 elections—the road to fully free, competitive, and inclusive elections remains a work in progress.

Electoral Violence & Violation in Ethiopia: 1900 to 2025

Ethiopia’s electoral history between 1900 and 2025 has been marked by a complex interplay of authoritarianism, democratic aspirations, ethnic tensions, and civil unrest. While multiparty elections only began in the post-1991 period following the fall of the Derg regime, Ethiopia has experienced numerous incidents of electoral violence, irregularities, delays, and boycotts over the decades.

Electoral Irregularities and Violence: Notable Incidents

2005 General Elections – A Turning Point Marked by Bloodshed

The 2005 elections were widely considered the most competitive and participatory in Ethiopia’s history up to that point. However, they were also marred by:

Post-election violence: After the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) claimed victory, opposition parties alleged widespread fraud and irregularities.

Mass protests and crackdowns: In Addis Ababa and other urban centres, protests erupted. Security forces responded with lethal force.

Casualties: Human rights groups reported that over 200 protesters were killed, and thousands were detained.

2010 Elections – Controlled Participation

While less violent, the 2010 elections raised serious concerns about fairness:

Harassment of opposition: Reports from Human Rights Watch and the EU accused the government of using food aid and jobs as political leverage.

Near-total EPRDF victory: The ruling party won 545 out of 547 seats, raising concerns about the democratic nature of the vote.

2015 Elections – No Real Opposition

In 2015, elections proceeded without significant violence, but international observers noted:

Lack of competitiveness: The EPRDF and allied parties secured 100% of parliamentary seats.

Intimidation and restricted media freedom were cited as suppressing opposition activity.

2021 General Elections – Conflict Overshadowed the Vote

The 2021 elections were held amidst the Tigray conflict, resulting in:

Suspension of voting in war-torn areas like Tigray.

Widespread displacement, making voter registration problematic.

Claims of intimidation against opposition and journalists in certain regions.

Elections in some regions were postponed to September 2021 due to logistical and security concerns.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections in Ethiopia (1900–2025)

Between 1900 and 2025, Ethiopia’s electoral journey has been shaped by repeated tensions between centralised power and growing demands for political pluralism. Elections in Ethiopia have frequently faced irregularities, violence, and logistical constraints. While certain milestones (e.g., 2005 and 2021) reflected a drive toward broader participation, structural imbalances, conflict, and suppression have often undermined democratic legitimacy. As the country continues to wrestle with ethnic federalism and national unity, the path toward genuinely free and fair elections remains contested.

Ethiopia’s Journey in Electoral Democracy: Democracy Index and Reforms from 1900 to 2025

Over the course of the 20th and early 21st centuries, Ethiopia’s democratic trajectory has been marked by cycles of authoritarian rule, limited political pluralism, contested elections, and sporadic reform. From imperial rule under Emperor Haile Selassie to the socialist Derg regime and the subsequent federal republic, the country's experience with electoral democracy has been fraught with challenges. International rankings such as the Democracy Index by The Economist Intelligence Unit have consistently placed Ethiopia in the "authoritarian" or "hybrid regime" categories, although moments of reform have occasionally sparked optimism.

Early 20th Century: Empire and Autocracy (1900–1974)

Between 1900 and the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, Ethiopia was an absolute monarchy with no electoral democracy. Governance was highly centralised and power was entrenched in the monarchy and aristocracy. Though a 1931 Constitution introduced a semblance of constitutional monarchy, elections (notably the 1957 and 1969 parliamentary polls) were heavily controlled, with candidates typically appointed rather than elected freely. No meaningful party competition or voter empowerment existed during this period.

Derg Era and Socialist One-Party State (1974–1991)

The Derg military junta, which deposed Haile Selassie, established a Marxist-Leninist state. Under Mengistu Haile Mariam, Ethiopia was ruled through authoritarian and highly repressive means. The Workers’ Party of Ethiopia (WPE) was the only legal party by the late 1980s, and any opposition was brutally suppressed. The 1987 elections under the new constitution were nominal, rubber-stamping a one-party system. Civil liberties, political pluralism, and free expression were virtually nonexistent.

Federal Republic and Fragile Pluralism (1991–2018)

After the overthrow of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) came to power, promising federalism and multiparty democracy. While the 1995 Constitution introduced a federal democratic republic with ethnic-based regional autonomy, in practice, the EPRDF maintained tight control.

Elections were held regularly (1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015), but except for the relatively competitive 2005 election—which saw significant gains by the opposition—subsequent polls were criticised for repression, harassment of journalists, mass arrests, and near-total victory by the ruling coalition. By 2015, the EPRDF and its allies controlled 100% of parliamentary seats, raising international concern over democratic backsliding.

The Democracy Index consistently ranked Ethiopia as an authoritarian regime during this period, citing lack of political competition, electoral irregularities, and media control.

Reform and Hope under Abiy Ahmed (2018–2020)

With the rise of Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed in 2018, Ethiopia entered a brief period of political liberalisation. Abiy freed political prisoners, lifted bans on opposition parties, opened media space, and invited exiled opposition figures back. These reforms were hailed domestically and internationally, with Ethiopia’s score on global democracy indices marginally improving.

The government also dissolved the EPRDF and formed the Prosperity Party, a broader coalition that sought to move away from ethnic-based federalism.

Backsliding and Crisis (2020–2025)

Despite early optimism, the democratic opening faltered amid growing ethnic tensions and civil conflict. The 2020 general elections were postponed due to COVID-19, but the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) defied the delay and held regional elections, sparking a brutal civil war. The conflict resulted in mass atrocities, media crackdowns, and internet shutdowns, with significant regression in civil liberties.

The delayed national elections were held in 2021 in most regions, with the Prosperity Party claiming a landslide victory. However, opposition parties cited irregularities, and international observers noted logistical problems and voter suppression in conflict-affected areas.

By 2025, while Ethiopia remains constitutionally a federal republic with multiparty elections, the practical state of democracy is deeply fragile. Most global rankings continue to categorise it as authoritarian or hybrid, with democratic reform overshadowed by ethnic conflict, centralised power, and the erosion of judicial and electoral independence.

Uneven Progress Amidst Authoritarian Legacy

Ethiopia’s electoral democracy from 1900 to 2025 reflects a tumultuous journey marked more by authoritarianism than democratic consolidation. While some reforms—particularly under Abiy Ahmed—offered glimpses of democratic potential, they have largely been undermined by internal conflicts, institutional weakness, and entrenched ruling-party dominance.

Looking forward, the sustainability of Ethiopia’s democratic ambitions will depend on genuine electoral reform, inclusive governance, and resolution of the ethnic federalism dilemma.

Major Electoral Reforms in Ethiopia: 1900–2025

Ethiopia’s path to electoral democracy has been long, complex, and often contested. From an imperial monarchy to a Marxist-Leninist military regime, and later a federal democratic republic, the country has undergone several major electoral reforms. These reforms have emerged not in a continuous democratic arc but in abrupt shifts shaped by regime change, civil unrest, constitutional overhauls, and conflict. This article outlines the most significant electoral reforms introduced in Ethiopia between 1900 and 2025.

The 1931 Constitution – Ethiopia’s First Formal Charter

Under Emperor Haile Selassie, the 1931 Constitution was Ethiopia’s first attempt at codified governance. While not democratic by modern standards, it marked the beginning of constitutional rule. It introduced a bicameral parliament, but the Emperor retained absolute power and appointed all legislators. No electoral process for the general population was established at this stage.

Reform Significance:
Introduced a framework for state governance, laying the foundation for future reform.

The 1955 Revised Constitution – Introduction of Parliamentary Elections

The 1955 Constitution marginally advanced electoral participation. It allowed for limited parliamentary elections in the lower house, though voting rights were highly restricted. The emperor continued to dominate all branches of government, and genuine political competition was absent.

Reform Significance:
First official introduction of elections in Ethiopia, albeit non-competitive and elite-controlled.

The 1987 Constitution – Socialist Electoral Structure under the Derg

Following the rise of the Marxist-Leninist Derg regime in 1974, a new constitution in 1987 declared Ethiopia a People’s Democratic Republic. It introduced a one-party state with the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia as the sole legal political entity. A National Shengo (assembly) was elected, but only from party-approved candidates.

Reform Significance:
Institutionalised elections within a socialist one-party state, removing all opposition and limiting popular choice.

The 1995 Constitution – Democratic Federalism and Universal Suffrage

After the fall of the Derg in 1991, the new EPRDF-led government introduced the 1995 Constitution, which remains the legal foundation of the Ethiopian state today. It enshrined multiparty democracy, ethnic federalism, and universal adult suffrage. The National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE) was established to oversee elections.

Key reforms included:

Direct elections for the House of People’s Representatives.

Recognition of nations and nationalities’ right to self-determination, including secession.

Legalisation of political parties and a theoretically independent judiciary.

Reform Significance:
Marked Ethiopia’s transition to a federal, multiparty republic with constitutional guarantees of electoral rights.

Electoral Law Revisions in the Early 2000s – Regulating Party Competition

Ahead of the 2005 general election—the most competitive in Ethiopia’s history—reforms were introduced to standardise electoral procedures. These included:

New political party registration laws.

Provisions for media access during campaigns.

Establishment of electoral dispute resolution mechanisms.

Despite these changes, implementation was partial. After the opposition made significant gains in 2005, many laws were reversed or tightened.

Reform Significance:
Aimed at increasing electoral competitiveness, but later weaponised to limit opposition activity.

NEBE Reform and Liberalisation under Abiy Ahmed (2018–2020)

With Abiy Ahmed becoming Prime Minister in 2018, Ethiopia saw its most promising democratic opening in decades. Electoral reforms under his leadership included:

Overhaul of the National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE), with Birtukan Mideksa, a former opposition judge, appointed as chair.

Liberalisation of party registration laws.

Decriminalisation of many forms of political dissent.

Re-registration of exiled and previously banned opposition groups.

Commitment to free, fair, and inclusive elections.

These reforms culminated in preparations for the 2020 election, which was later postponed due to the pandemic and followed by civil war in Tigray.

Reform Significance:
Reinvigorated electoral credibility and inclusion, though ultimately undermined by conflict and instability.

Post-Conflict Legal Adjustments (2021–2025)

In the aftermath of the Tigray War, efforts were made to adapt electoral law to new realities. Though implementation remained inconsistent, some reforms aimed to:

Re-establish elections in conflict-affected regions.

Enhance NEBE’s administrative independence.

Introduce electronic voter registration and improved biometric ID systems.

Review the controversial ethnic federalism clauses that fuelled political fragmentation.

Reform Significance:
Reflected an effort to restore electoral legitimacy, but deeply hampered by insecurity and political polarisation.

A Reform Process Shaped by Disruption

While Ethiopia has introduced numerous electoral reforms between 1900 and 2025, most have occurred in reaction to regime change or political crisis rather than through a steady commitment to democratic consolidation. The 1995 Constitution and the reforms under Abiy Ahmed stand out as the most substantial attempts to entrench democratic elections. However, recurrent backsliding, contested legitimacy, and structural barriers—especially ethnic federalism and centralised power—continue to challenge the realisation of a robust electoral democracy.

Global Comparison: Ethiopia vs Ethiopia (1900–2025)

At first glance, comparing Ethiopia to itself may seem paradoxical. However, examining Ethiopia’s electoral systems over time—particularly before and after its democratic transition—offers valuable insight into how the country has evolved politically. This comparison explores the institutional structures, levels of inclusivity, competitiveness, and democratic integrity of Ethiopia’s electoral systems from 1900 to 2025, assessing which era was more democratic and why.

Ethiopia’s Electoral System: 1900–1974 (Imperial Era)

System Characteristics:

Monarchical control: Ethiopia under Emperor Menelik II and later Haile Selassie was an absolute monarchy transitioning to a constitutional monarchy by mid-century.

First formal elections: Introduced in 1957, but only for a parliament with minimal power.

No universal suffrage: Voting rights were restricted by property, literacy, and gender.

One-party dominance by default: Political parties were virtually non-existent, and opposition was stifled.

Democratic Score:

Extremely low. Institutions were symbolic, and elections did not offer meaningful political choice.

Power rested firmly with the monarch.

Ethiopia’s Electoral System: 1974–1991 (Derg Military Regime)

System Characteristics:

No competitive elections: The Derg overthrew the monarchy and ruled as a Marxist-Leninist military junta.

Single-party authoritarian rule: The Workers' Party of Ethiopia monopolised politics.

Revolutionary rhetoric, autocratic reality: Elections, if held, were choreographed within a one-party framework.

Democratic Score:

Zero democracy. The Derg period was marked by repression, including the Red Terror and civil war.

Ethiopia’s Electoral System: 1991–2025 (Post-Derg Federal Republic)

System Characteristics:

New constitution (1995): Introduced a federal parliamentary republic with ethnic federalism.

First multiparty elections: Held in 1995, followed by national polls in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2021.

Electoral system: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) in single-member constituencies.

Election body: National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE) established.

Key Trends:

2005: Competitive, but ended in post-election violence.

2010 & 2015: Elections heavily skewed in favour of the ruling EPRDF.

2021: Held under Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed; more pluralistic, but marred by war in Tigray.

Democratic Score:

Partial democracy, fluctuating between authoritarian dominance and reformist openings.

Improvement over imperial and Derg periods, though far from consolidated democracy.

Side-by-Side Comparison: Ethiopia's Electoral Evolution

Which Was More Democratic?

Unequivocally, the post-1991 era represents a more democratic system compared to earlier periods. While flawed and often skewed, it at least institutionalised the idea of elections, opposition parties, and citizen participation. By contrast, both the imperial and Derg regimes offered little to no space for democratic engagement.

However, democracy in Ethiopia remains fragile and uneven—held back by:

Electoral violence (e.g., 2005),

Civil conflicts (e.g., Tigray war),

Centralised party dominance (e.g., EPRDF/Prosperity Party),

Restrictions on press and civil society.

Ethiopia’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 reflects a slow and difficult transition from autocracy to partial democracy. While the modern era shows more institutional and procedural democratic features, substantive democracy—marked by equal participation, genuine competition, and accountable governance—remains a work in progress.

Pioneers of the Ballot: Countries That Held Their First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century and the Systems They Adopted

The 20th century marked a transformative era for global democracy. Following the collapse of empires, the end of colonial rule, and waves of revolution and reform, dozens of countries held their first democratic elections. These early polls were shaped not just by local conditions, but by prevailing global ideologies and power dynamics. Below is a curated overview of key countries that held their first democratic elections during the 20th century, including the electoral systems they adopted at the time.

Germany – 1919

System: Proportional Representation (PR)

Context: After the fall of the German Empire post-WWI, the Weimar Republic was formed. The 1919 election for the National Assembly was the first conducted under universal suffrage (including women), using a proportional representation system.

Significance: Set the precedent for modern electoral design in Europe.

India – 1951–52

System: First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)

Context: Following independence from Britain in 1947 and the adoption of a republican constitution in 1950, India held its first general election in 1951–52.

Significance: The largest democratic exercise in history at that time, embracing adult suffrage in a post-colonial context.

Japan – 1946

System: Multi-member Constituencies (limited vote), later changed to Mixed Electoral System

Context: Under U.S. occupation after WWII, Japan adopted a democratic constitution and held its first free election in 1946, which also allowed women to vote for the first time.

Significance: Marked the start of post-war democracy in Asia.

South Africa – 1994

System: Proportional Representation (List System)

Context: After the end of apartheid, South Africa held its first inclusive democratic election, open to all racial groups.

Significance: A landmark in post-colonial and civil rights history.

Nigeria – 1959

System: FPTP

Context: This election paved the way for independence from Britain in 1960. It featured a parliamentary system and was based on the British model.

Significance: Though democratic in format, deep ethnic and regional divides influenced outcomes.

Indonesia – 1955

System: Proportional Representation

Context: After independence from the Dutch in 1949, Indonesia held its first national election in 1955 to elect a Constituent Assembly.

Significance: It was seen as a major democratic achievement in Southeast Asia, though democracy was later interrupted by authoritarian rule.

Israel – 1949

System: Nationwide Proportional Representation

Context: Following its declaration of independence in 1948, Israel held its first election to form a constituent assembly, which became the first Knesset.

Significance: The election featured a high level of voter engagement and multiple parties.

Ghana – 1951

System: FPTP (British-style parliamentary system)

Context: As the first sub-Saharan African country to move toward self-rule, Ghana held a semi-democratic election in 1951 under British colonial oversight.

Significance: It was a precursor to full independence in 1957 and led by Kwame Nkrumah.

South Korea – 1948

System: FPTP, Presidential System

Context: After Japanese colonial rule, South Korea held elections under UN supervision, leading to the establishment of the Republic of Korea.

Significance: Despite later authoritarian periods, this election laid the groundwork for democratic governance.

Kenya – 1963

System: FPTP

Context: Kenya’s first democratic election was held ahead of its independence from Britain in December 1963.

Significance: Introduced electoral competition within a nascent African state.

Electoral Systems Summary:

The 20th century was a period of democratic expansion, especially in post-colonial, post-war, and transitional societies. Countries varied in their choice of electoral systems—often influenced by colonial legacies or international advisors. While not all of these democracies endured uninterrupted, the first elections were often powerful symbols of national identity and political modernity.

Timeline of Major Elections and Political Turning Points in Ethiopia (1900–2025)

Ethiopia's electoral history is a tale of empire, revolution, military rule, and a federal republic struggling with the promise of democracy. The country has undergone dramatic political transitions that have shaped, constrained, and periodically revived the idea of elections. This timeline outlines key national electoral events and political turning points from 1900 to 2025.

1900–1930: Imperial Rule Without Elections

1900–1930: Ethiopia was under Emperor Menelik II and later Empress Zewditu. There was no electoral framework. Governance was based on a feudal-monarchical system, with regional nobility exerting influence.

1931: First Constitution Introduced

1931: Emperor Haile Selassie introduced Ethiopia’s first written constitution.

Significance: Created a bicameral parliament, but all members were either appointed or selected from the aristocracy. No popular elections were held.

1955: Revised Constitution and Parliamentary Restructuring

1955: The Revised Constitution granted limited powers to an elected lower house.

Turning Point: Theoretically introduced suffrage, but real power remained with the Emperor and provincial elites. Elections, where held, were indirect and highly restricted.

1974: Military Coup – Monarchy Overthrown

1974: The Derg, a Marxist-Leninist military junta, deposed Emperor Haile Selassie.

Impact: Suspended all constitutional and electoral processes; established one-party rule under socialist ideology.

1987: Single-Party Election under Derg

14 June 1987: General elections for the newly created National Shengo under the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE).

Outcome: Workers’ Party of Ethiopia (WPE) won all 835 seats.

Turning Point: Ethiopia's first nationwide election—but within a one-party Marxist system. Widely regarded as non-democratic.

1991: Fall of the Derg – EPRDF Takes Power

1991: The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) overthrew the Derg.

Turning Point: Marked the end of military rule and the beginning of a federal restructuring.

1995: First Multiparty General Election under New Constitution

7 May 1995: Ethiopia’s first election under the 1995 Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic.

Result: EPRDF won 471 out of 547 seats.

Opposition: Boycotted by most opposition parties.

Significance: Foundation for the modern federal multiparty framework, though tightly controlled.

2000: Consolidation of EPRDF Power

14 May & 31 August 2000: Second general election.

Result: EPRDF and its affiliates retained overwhelming majority.

Context: Conducted in a post-war environment following the Eritrea-Ethiopia conflict.

2005: Historic Competitive Election and Crackdown

15 May 2005: Ethiopia’s most contested and participatory election to date.

Result: EPRDF: 327 seats, CUD: 109 seats.

Aftermath: Mass protests over alleged fraud; government crackdown resulted in deaths and arrests of opposition leaders.

Turning Point: Exposed both the public’s desire for democratic reform and the ruling party’s resistance to power-sharing.

2010: Return to Authoritarian Dominance

23 May 2010: Fourth general election under the EPRDF-led coalition.

Result: EPRDF won 499 seats; opposition marginalised.

Observation: EU monitors noted an uneven playing field and restricted media space.

2015: Electoral Clean Sweep by EPRDF

24 May 2015: EPRDF and allies won all 547 seats.

Criticism: Marked by the complete absence of parliamentary opposition.

Trend: Further centralisation of power under the ruling party.

2018: Leadership Change and Party Transformation

April 2018: Abiy Ahmed became Prime Minister.

Reform Drive: Political prisoners released, media freedoms expanded.

Turning Point: EPRDF dissolved and reconstituted as the Prosperity Party in 2019, abandoning ethnic party structure.

2021: Postponed and Fragmented Election Amid Conflict

21 June & 30 September 2021: General election held in phases due to COVID-19 and the Tigray conflict.

Result: Prosperity Party won 410 of 436 contested seats.

Exclusion: No voting in Tigray and some other regions.

Significance: Attempted democratic legitimacy amid civil war; deeply polarised political environment.

2025: Next General Election (Anticipated)

Scheduled: 2025 (exact date pending official announcement)

Uncertainty: Will depend on resolution of internal conflicts, particularly in Tigray, Amhara, and Oromia.

Prospect: Could be a defining moment for genuine pluralism—or further democratic stagnation.

A Journey Interrupted

Ethiopia’s electoral history is marked more by turning points than by steady progress. From imperial rule and military dictatorship to fragile federal democracy, the country’s elections have often served as battlegrounds between central authority and calls for popular legitimacy. The upcoming 2025 election holds the potential to either deepen the democratic project—or entrench authoritarian tendencies under a different guise.

Major Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Ethiopia from 1900 to 2025

Ethiopia’s political landscape throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries has been shaped by a series of seismic events—revolutions, coups, constitutional reforms, and conflicts—that have profoundly influenced its democratic trajectory. While Ethiopia’s journey towards democracy has been far from linear, several key events stand out as turning points that reshaped its political system.

Early 20th Century: Imperial Consolidation and Limited Political Participation

1900–1930s: Reign of Emperor Menelik II and Emperor Haile Selassie I
During this period, Ethiopia was an empire under monarchic rule with little to no electoral democracy. Political power was concentrated in the emperor and aristocracy, and formal elections were virtually nonexistent.

1931: First Ethiopian Constitution
Emperor Haile Selassie promulgated Ethiopia’s first written constitution, introducing a semblance of modern governance. However, it was autocratic in nature, centralising power in the emperor and offering no democratic elections or multi-party participation.

Italian Occupation and World War II (1936–1941)

1936–1941: Italian Occupation
The brief Italian fascist occupation interrupted Ethiopia’s sovereignty and political development. Although the period was marked by foreign rule rather than democratic change, the liberation in 1941 led to a renewed emphasis on Ethiopian sovereignty and governance reforms.

Post-War Reforms and the Attempt at Modernisation (1941–1974)

1955: Revised Constitution
Haile Selassie introduced a new constitution granting limited legislative powers to a bicameral parliament. This was Ethiopia’s first step towards representative governance but remained under tight imperial control with no genuine electoral competition.

1960: Attempted Coup d’État
A failed military coup in 1960 briefly challenged the emperor’s authority, exposing dissatisfaction with imperial rule and planting early seeds for political reform, though it did not result in democratic transition.

The 1974 Revolution and the Fall of the Monarchy

1974: Ethiopian Revolution
Massive social unrest, economic hardship, and dissatisfaction with imperial rule culminated in a revolution that deposed Emperor Haile Selassie. The Derg military junta seized power, ending centuries of monarchy and initiating a Marxist-Leninist one-party state.

The Derg Regime and One-Party Rule (1974–1991)

1977: Formation of the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia (WPE)
The Derg institutionalised authoritarian rule through the WPE, abolishing any prospects of multi-party democracy. The regime’s brutal repression, including the “Red Terror,” severely limited political freedoms.

The Fall of the Derg and Transition to Federalism (1991)

1991: Overthrow of the Derg by the EPRDF
The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) ended the Derg’s rule, marking a pivotal shift from military dictatorship to a federal, ethnically based political system.

1994–1995: Adoption of the New Constitution and First Multi-Party Elections
The 1995 Constitution established Ethiopia as a federal democratic republic with a multi-party system and ethnic federalism, theoretically opening the door for democratic governance.

Elections and Political Challenges (1995–2018)

2005: Controversial General Election and Aftermath
The 2005 elections were Ethiopia’s most competitive to date, with opposition parties gaining significant support. However, disputed results and subsequent government crackdowns on protests marked a setback for democratic progress.

2015: Dominance of the EPRDF
The ruling coalition won all parliamentary seats amid criticism of repression and limited political freedoms, highlighting challenges in consolidating genuine democracy.

Recent Reforms and Conflict (2018–2025)

2018: Reformist Leadership of Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed
Abiy’s premiership heralded a period of political liberalisation, including releasing political prisoners, legalising opposition groups, and pursuing peace initiatives. These reforms raised hopes for democratic deepening.

2021: Delayed and Partial General Elections
The COVID-19 pandemic and internal conflicts delayed elections, which were also boycotted or disrupted in some regions. The electoral process underscored ongoing difficulties in balancing democratic governance with ethnic and political tensions.

Ongoing Conflict and Political Instability (2020s)
The civil war in Tigray and related conflicts have posed severe challenges to national unity and democracy, with human rights concerns and governance crises continuing into 2025.

Ethiopia’s democratic landscape from 1900 to 2025 reflects a complex interplay of imperial tradition, revolutionary upheaval, authoritarian rule, and attempts at democratic reform. Key global and domestic electoral events—from constitutional reforms and elections to coups and armed conflicts—have continuously reshaped its political trajectory. While the formal structures of democracy have been established since the 1990s, genuine democratic consolidation remains an ongoing challenge amid Ethiopia’s diverse ethnic and political realities.

Ethiopia General Elections Overview (1900–2025)

*Note: The 2021 election was delayed in some regions due to COVID-19 and conflict; turnout figures vary by region.

Explanation:

Ethiopia’s electoral history prior to 1991 was dominated by autocratic monarchy and a military dictatorship, where elections were either non-existent or tightly controlled without genuine competition. The 1931 and 1957 elections under Emperor Haile Selassie introduced limited parliamentary representation but lacked true democratic process, with the Emperor retaining ultimate authority.

The 1987 election under the Derg was a one-party event with no real electoral choice. The overthrow of the Derg in 1991 led to the 1995 constitution establishing a federal democratic republic, heralding multiparty elections with significant voter turnout, often reported at around 90%.

Elections since 1995 have been marked by the dominance of the EPRDF and later the Prosperity Party, with opposition parties facing repression. The 2005 election was a notable moment of political contestation, featuring significant opposition gains and subsequent crackdowns.

The 2021 elections, delayed and disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic and internal conflicts, highlighted ongoing challenges to electoral stability and democratic consolidation in Ethiopia.

Global Electoral Trends by Decade: Ethiopia’s Experience from 1900 to 2025

Ethiopia’s electoral history over the last 125 years mirrors many of the global political currents—oscillating between authoritarian rule, attempts at democratisation, and periods of political turmoil. While global electoral trends have generally moved towards greater democratization and political participation, Ethiopia’s experience has been more complex, shaped by internal dynamics and regional challenges. Below is a decade-by-decade summary highlighting key trends in electoral governance, democratic reforms, and setbacks in Ethiopia, set within the wider global context.

1900s–1930s: Imperial Rule and Limited Political Participation

Global Trend: The early 20th century saw nascent parliamentary systems develop in Europe and parts of the Americas, although large swathes of the world remained under imperial or autocratic rule.

Ethiopia: During this period, Ethiopia remained an imperial monarchy under Emperor Menelik II and later Haile Selassie. The 1931 Constitution was Ethiopia’s first formal attempt at a constitutional framework, but political power remained firmly in the emperor’s hands with no real electoral competition.

Electoral Innovations: None; governance was highly centralised and hereditary.

1940s–1960s: Post-War Democratic Expansion vs. Ethiopian Autocracy

Global Trend: After World War II, many countries adopted democratic constitutions, expanded suffrage, and began holding more regular elections.

Ethiopia: Contrasting the global trend, Ethiopia continued under imperial rule with very limited political liberalisation. The 1955 Constitution allowed limited elections for a lower parliamentary house, but suffrage was restricted and the monarchy retained significant control.

Authoritarian Rollbacks: Electoral participation was nominal, designed to preserve imperial authority rather than encourage genuine democracy.

1970s–1980s: Rise of Authoritarian Socialist Regimes

Global Trend: Many countries, particularly in Africa and Latin America, experienced coups and shifts to authoritarian socialist governments, often with one-party states and controlled elections.

Ethiopia: The Derg military junta overthrew the monarchy in 1974 and ruled Ethiopia through a Marxist-Leninist one-party state. The 1987 Constitution formalised a one-party electoral system under the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia, eliminating political pluralism.

Authoritarian Rollbacks: Elections became mere formalities, suppressing opposition and centralising power.

1990s: Wave of Democratization and Federalism

Global Trend: The end of the Cold War ushered in a “third wave” of democratization worldwide, with many authoritarian regimes transitioning to multiparty systems.

Ethiopia: After the Derg’s fall in 1991, Ethiopia adopted a new constitution in 1995, establishing a federal parliamentary republic with multiparty elections and ethnic federalism. The National Election Board was created to oversee elections.

Democratization: The introduction of universal suffrage, competitive elections, and constitutional guarantees marked a significant democratic breakthrough.

2000s: Electoral Contestation and Democratic Challenges

Global Trend: Globally, democracies faced challenges such as electoral violence, manipulation, and declining public trust, though many states retained multiparty competition.

Ethiopia: The 2005 general election saw unprecedented opposition gains but resulted in post-election violence and government crackdowns. Subsequent elections were dominated by the ruling EPRDF coalition, with reports of intimidation and media restrictions.

Electoral Innovations: Efforts to regulate party registration and election monitoring increased, though political freedoms remained constrained.

2010s: Authoritarian Resilience vs. Reform Attempts

Global Trend: Many countries saw authoritarian regimes adapt by holding controlled elections while limiting genuine political competition.

Ethiopia: The ruling party maintained near-complete control until 2018, when Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed initiated a reformist agenda, liberalising political space, releasing political prisoners, and reforming the electoral commission.

Democratization: Abiy’s reforms raised hopes for more credible elections and increased political pluralism.

2020s: Conflict and Electoral Disruption

Global Trend: The decade has seen both democratic backsliding and struggles for free elections amid rising populism and conflict worldwide.

Ethiopia: The postponement of the 2020 elections due to COVID-19 and subsequent armed conflict in Tigray severely disrupted the electoral calendar. The 2021 elections proceeded amid uneven participation and regional violence.

Authoritarian Rollbacks: Political instability, internet shutdowns, and repression have undermined democratic gains, leaving Ethiopia’s electoral democracy fragile.

Ethiopia’s electoral history reveals a pattern of cycles of reform and rollback rather than linear progress. While global trends largely favoured increasing democratization and electoral innovation, Ethiopia has experienced prolonged authoritarianism interspersed with moments of political opening. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for analysts and policymakers engaged in supporting democratic development in Ethiopia and comparable contexts worldwide.

Write like a political analyst explaining why the 2006 election in Ethiopia was controversial

Although Ethiopia did not hold a general election in 2006—its last national polls before 2006 took place in 2005—understanding the context of the 2005 election is crucial, as it set the stage for significant political unrest in the following year.

The 2005 Ethiopian general election is widely regarded as the most competitive and politically charged in the country’s modern history. The election was controversial for several reasons:

Firstly, the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) faced its strongest opposition challenge yet, notably from the Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD) and other opposition groups. This led to unprecedented voter engagement, with an official turnout reported to be around 90%.

However, controversy quickly engulfed the results. Opposition parties alleged widespread electoral fraud, irregularities, and vote rigging favouring the EPRDF. The National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE) was accused of lacking independence and transparency.

Post-election, Ethiopia witnessed mass protests and demonstrations, primarily in the capital Addis Ababa, as opposition supporters contested the official results. The government’s response was swift and brutal: security forces cracked down on protesters, resulting in over 200 deaths and thousands of arrests. This violent repression highlighted deep fractures in Ethiopia’s political landscape and cast a shadow over its democratic credentials.

In essence, the controversy surrounding the 2005 election—and its violent aftermath in 2006—stemmed from a tense political environment where democratic aspirations clashed with authoritarian tendencies. The episode underscored the challenges facing emerging democracies in balancing political competition with state control and stability.

 Summarise the 1900 Eastern European elections in a journalistic tone

The dawn of the 20th century in Eastern Europe was marked by political ferment and burgeoning national consciousness. Yet, the electoral processes in 1900 remained largely restricted and unrepresentative by modern democratic standards.

Most Eastern European states were under imperial or autocratic rule, including the Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire’s remaining territories. Elections, where they occurred, often involved limited suffrage, heavily influenced or controlled by ruling elites.

In the Russian Empire, for example, the 1900 period saw no parliamentary elections. The State Duma was yet to be established, and political dissent was suppressed under Tsarist autocracy.

Elsewhere, nascent political parties and reform movements agitated for expanded rights and constitutional governance, laying the groundwork for future upheavals. However, the general populace remained excluded from meaningful political participation.

In summary, Eastern Europe’s electoral landscape in 1900 was characterised by elitism, limited franchise, and the dominance of monarchies, foreshadowing the revolutionary changes that would erupt in the following decades.

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