Explaining the Electoral System in Somalia from 1900 to 2025: Voting Methods, Representation, and Political Structure -Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

Somalia’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 reveals a tumultuous journey marked by colonial administration, independence struggles, authoritarian rule, state collapse, and fragile transitions to democratic governance. This article examines the evolution of Somalia’s electoral system, detailing the types of voting and representation employed during key periods, and highlighting the unique challenges that shaped Somali democracy.

Pre-Independence Era (1900–1960): Colonial Rule and Fragmented Governance

During this period, Somalia was divided into British Somaliland in the north and Italian Somaliland in the south. Under colonial rule, there were no democratic elections. Governance was administered by colonial officials with limited advisory councils, and political participation by Somalis was negligible.

British Somaliland: Ruled indirectly via traditional clan structures; no electoral system.

Italian Somaliland: Administered directly, with limited local councils under Italian oversight; no free elections.

There was no form of proportional, majoritarian, or mixed electoral representation. Political activity was mostly suppressed or strictly controlled by colonial powers.

 Post-Independence Parliamentary Democracy (1960–1969)

Upon gaining independence in 1960, British and Italian Somalilands united to form the Somali Republic. Somalia briefly functioned as a multi-party parliamentary democracy.

Electoral System Used: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Type of Representation: Majoritarian, single-member districts

Voting Method: Direct voting for members of parliament (MPs)

Elections were held in 1964 and 1969 under this framework. Political fragmentation was common, with over 60 parties contesting the 1969 general election. While FPTP encouraged winner-takes-all outcomes, the multiparty environment diluted its effectiveness and led to unstable coalitions.

Authoritarian Period Under Siad Barre (1969–1991)

Following a military coup in 1969, Major General Siad Barre suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament, and banned political parties. Somalia was turned into a one-party Marxist-Leninist state under the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC).

Electoral System: None (authoritarian rule)

Representation: Appointed by regime; no competitive elections

Voting: Symbolic referenda (e.g., 1979 constitutional referendum), often rigged or coercive

During this period, electoral democracy ceased to function entirely.

State Collapse and Absence of Elections (1991–2000)

After Barre’s regime collapsed in 1991, Somalia entered a prolonged period of civil war and statelessness. There was no central government and, therefore, no electoral process.

System: Anarchy and clan-based governance

Representation: Traditional clan elders filled the vacuum

Elections: Non-existent at the national level

Transition to Clan-Based Indirect Electoral Model (2000–2016)

Efforts to restore governance began with the formation of the Transitional National Government (TNG) in 2000 and later the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). Due to insecurity and weak institutions, Somalia adopted a clan-based indirect electoral system.

System Used: Indirect electoral system based on the “4.5 formula”

Representation: Clan quota system

Four major clans received equal seats

Minority clans shared the remaining 0.5 portion

Voting: MPs were selected by clan elders and political elites rather than the public

This model persisted through multiple electoral cycles, including those in 2004, 2009, and 2012, during which presidents and MPs were indirectly chosen.

Attempts at Gradual Democratization (2016–2021)

Somalia aimed to move toward a universal suffrage system. However, due to insecurity and logistical challenges, the country continued with indirect elections.

System Used: Expanded indirect electoral college

Representation: Clan-based, but broadened

Each MP was elected by 51 electors selected by clan elders

Voting Method: Delegates voted for MPs, who then elected the President

Although still indirect, the 2016 and 2021 elections were more inclusive than earlier models.

2025 Outlook and Proposed Electoral Reforms

By 2025, Somalia has been striving to implement universal suffrage, especially after the adoption of the 2020 Electoral Law aimed at “one person, one vote”. However, due to ongoing security challenges, elections remain semi-direct.

Proposed System: Mixed electoral model with elements of proportional representation (PR) and majoritarian systems

Goal: Direct voting for parliamentarians and local councils

Challenges: Al-Shabaab insurgency, clan disputes, and lack of infrastructure

Efforts by the National Independent Electoral Commission (NIEC) suggest a future move toward a hybrid PR-majoritarian model, but full implementation remains uncertain.

Somalia’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 illustrates a complex evolution from colonial subjugation, brief democratic experimentation, authoritarian collapse, clan-based representation, and gradual steps toward universal suffrage. While the 1960s saw majoritarian FPTP systems in action, much of Somalia’s modern electoral system is rooted in indirect, clan-based structures. The future of Somalia’s democracy depends on sustained reforms, peacebuilding, and institutional resilience to support free and fair elections by direct suffrage.

When Did Somalia Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

Somalia’s journey towards a multi-party or democratic electoral system has been deeply influenced by colonial legacies, state collapse, civil war, and protracted efforts at state-building. Unlike many African countries with clear-cut timelines of democratic transition, Somalia’s path has been complex, nonlinear, and fraught with setbacks.

Colonial Roots and Early Post-Independence Governance

Following independence in 1960, the newly formed Somali Republic—created through the union of British Somaliland and the Italian-administered Trust Territory of Somalia—adopted a parliamentary democratic system. The 1961 constitution laid the groundwork for a multi-party framework, and democratic elections were held in 1964 and again in 1969. Multiple political parties, including the Somali Youth League (SYL), competed in a relatively pluralistic environment.

However, this experiment with democracy was short-lived. In October 1969, following the assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, Major General Siad Barre seized power in a bloodless coup, suspending the constitution and dissolving political parties. This marked the beginning of a one-party military dictatorship under the Supreme Revolutionary Council, which lasted for over two decades.

Collapse and Fragmentation: 1991–2000

Siad Barre’s regime collapsed in 1991, plunging the country into civil war and ushering in a period of statelessness. For nearly a decade, no functioning central government existed. Instead, Somalia was governed by clan-based militias, warlords, and regional authorities, most notably in Somaliland and Puntland. During this time, the notion of a multi-party democracy was largely irrelevant, as the priority was restoring basic governance and order.

Rebuilding the State: Transitional Period (2000–2012)

A significant turning point came in 2000 with the formation of the Transitional National Government (TNG) at the Arta Conference in Djibouti. Although flawed and lacking broad support, it marked the first serious attempt to re-establish national institutions. The TNG gave way to the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004, which gradually laid the foundation for a more formal political process.

While still based on a clan power-sharing formula known as the “4.5 system” (four major clans and a coalition of minority groups), these transitional structures included indirect elections and basic parliamentary functions. However, they did not constitute a fully democratic or multi-party system, as political parties remained absent and elections were conducted by clan elders, not the general populace.

The Provisional Constitution and Formalisation of Multi-Party Aspirations

In 2012, Somalia adopted a Provisional Federal Constitution, establishing the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS). This was a key milestone, as it formally outlined the country’s intention to transition to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage. It also guaranteed political freedoms and civil liberties necessary for democratic practice.

However, due to security challenges, weak institutions, and political disagreements, the implementation of universal direct elections has been repeatedly postponed. Instead, Somalia has relied on indirect electoral models, with Members of Parliament selected by clan elders and special delegates, who then elect the president.

Slow March Toward Universal Suffrage

Over the past decade, several efforts have been made to implement “one person, one vote” elections. The National Independent Electoral Commission (NIEC) was established to oversee this process. Pilot local elections were conducted in some districts of Puntland in 2021 and in other federal member states. Yet, nationwide democratic elections have remained elusive due to persistent insecurity, especially from the al-Shabaab insurgency.

Recent Developments and Outlook

As of 2025, Somalia has yet to fully transition to a stable, functioning multi-party democratic system based on direct elections. Political parties now legally exist and are gradually organising, but they have not yet competed in national-level general elections under universal suffrage. The country remains under a hybrid indirect electoral framework.

Nonetheless, Somalia has made incremental progress. The establishment of federal institutions, adoption of a constitution recognising multi-party democracy, and limited local elections point to a slow but ongoing transition. With continued international support, domestic reforms, and improvements in security, Somalia may yet realise its democratic aspirations in the coming years.

To summarise, Somalia’s initial foray into democracy in the 1960s was interrupted by authoritarian rule and civil war. The real transition towards a multi-party or democratic system began in earnest only after 2000, and was constitutionally entrenched in 2012. However, Somalia has not yet completed this transition. Rather, it remains in a protracted state of democratic development—striving, but not yet succeeding, in delivering full political participation for its people.

Somalia’s National Election Results and Political Outcomes (1900–2025)

Somalia’s political journey from the early 20th century to 2025 has been marked by colonial rule, independence, military coups, civil war, and fragile democratic transitions. National election results—when held—have often reflected wider instability and transitional governance, with long gaps between legitimate electoral contests. Below is a chronologically structured account of Somalia’s national election results, party performance, and political outcomes.

Pre-Independence Era (1900–1960)

Colonial Context: Somalia was under dual colonial control—British Somaliland (north) and Italian Somaliland (south). No national elections were held during this period.

1948–1956: Limited municipal elections were held under Italian UN trusteeship. No national parties existed yet; representation was mostly clan-based or colonial appointees.

1959 Parliamentary Elections (Trust Territory of Somalia)

Date: 30 March 1959

Voter Turnout: Estimated at 55%

Key Outcome:

Somali Youth League (SYL): Won 83 out of 90 seats

Other parties boycotted the election citing political bias.

Political Outcome: Set the foundation for full independence in 1960; SYL dominated the transitional government.

1964 General Elections (First Post-Independence Election)

Date: 26 March 1964

Voter Turnout: ~62%

Seats in Parliament: 123

Party Results:

Somali Youth League (SYL): 69 seats

Somali National Congress (SNC): 22 seats

Somali Democratic Union (SDU): 15 seats

Other Independents & Minor Parties: 17 seats

Outcome: SYL formed a coalition government; multiparty democracy continued despite challenges.

1969 General Elections

Date: 26 March 1969

Voter Turnout: ~75%

Seats in Parliament: 123

Party Results (fragmented):

SYL: 73 seats

SSDF, SPM, and others: The rest divided among 60+ parties and independents

Outcome: Political instability grew due to excessive party fragmentation.

Political Turning Point: President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was assassinated in October 1969. Shortly after, Major General Siad Barre seized power in a coup d’état, dissolving parliament.

1977 Referendum (Under Siad Barre)

Type: National referendum on a new constitution

Date: 25 August 1979

Turnout: Reportedly 99.6%

Approval: Claimed 99.9% voted “Yes”

Outcome: Confirmed the creation of a one-party state under the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP). No multi-party elections occurred under Barre.

1986 Presidential Plebiscite

Date: December 1986

Candidate: Siad Barre (sole candidate)

Claimed Vote Share: 99.9%

Outcome: Barre “re-elected” for another term. By 1991, his regime collapsed amid civil war.

1991–2000: No National Elections

Somalia descended into state collapse. Warlordism and clan-based fighting dominated the 1990s. No national elections occurred.

2000 Arta Conference – Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs)

Selection of MPs: Clan-based appointments via the “4.5 formula”

President Elected by MPs:

Abdiqasim Salad Hassan elected by 245-member Transitional National Assembly

Not by public vote

2004 Presidential Election (Indirect)

President: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed elected by Transitional Federal Parliament

Method: Indirect vote held in Nairobi, Kenya due to security concerns

Voter Turnout: N/A (not public)

2009 and 2012 Presidential Elections

2009: Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed elected by MPs

2012: Hassan Sheikh Mohamud elected by expanded parliament

Seats: 275 in the House of the People

Voter Turnout: N/A (indirect vote by parliamentarians)

2016/2017 Presidential Elections

Type: Indirect election

Final Round Candidates:

Mohamed Abdullahi Farmaajo (elected)

Incumbent Hassan Sheikh Mohamud

Votes:

Farmaajo: 184 votes (out of 328 MPs and senators)

Turnout: N/A (not by public vote)

Outcome: Celebrated for relatively peaceful transfer of power.

2021–2022 Electoral Delays & Resolution

Presidential Election Held: 15 May 2022

Elected President: Hassan Sheikh Mohamud (re-elected)

Votes: 214 out of 328 MPs

Outcome: Marked a return to power for Mohamud after Farmaajo’s turbulent term.

2025 (Projected General Elections)

Status: Somalia has pledged to hold its first one-person, one-vote national elections in decades.

Preparations: National Independent Electoral Commission (NIEC) has laid groundwork with biometric registration, yet instability and funding challenges remain.

Anticipated System: Mixed system (proportional representation + majoritarian for presidential vote)

From colonial exclusion to a brief democratic window in the 1960s, followed by authoritarian rule and decades of conflict, Somalia's electoral history has been shaped more by state fragility than electoral continuity. However, the post-2000 period has seen incremental gains. If successfully held, the 2025 election could mark a historic return to direct universal suffrage—a first since 1969.

Sources:

Somali National Electoral Commission (NIEC)

UN Assistance Mission in Somalia (UNSOM)

African Elections Database

Journal of Eastern African Studies

Major Political Parties and Leaders in Somalia (1900–2025) and Their Electoral Outcomes

The political landscape of Somalia has undergone profound transformations from the colonial era through post-independence democratic experimentation, military dictatorship, civil war, and attempts at democratic revival in the 21st century. This article traces the major political parties, influential leaders, and electoral outcomes from 1900 to 2025.

Colonial Period and Early Political Activity (1900–1960)

During the first half of the 20th century, Somalia was split between British Somaliland in the north and Italian Somaliland in the south. Political parties as we understand them today were virtually non-existent until the mid-20th century. Nationalist sentiment began to grow in the 1940s, laying the groundwork for party politics.

Key Political Party:

Somali Youth League (SYL) – Founded in 1943, the SYL emerged as the dominant nationalist movement pushing for independence. It enjoyed widespread support and was instrumental in the eventual unification of British and Italian Somaliland.

Notable Leader:

Aden Abdullah Osman Daar – A founding member of SYL and Somalia’s first democratically elected president.

Post-Independence Democratic Period (1960–1969)

Following the independence and unification of the two territories in 1960, Somalia adopted a parliamentary system. A multiparty democracy flourished briefly but was marked by fragmentation and instability.

Major Parties:

Somali Youth League (SYL) – Continued dominance post-independence.

Somali National Congress (SNC) and several regional/tribal-based parties also gained representation, though the SYL retained a strong majority.

Outcome:

In the 1964 parliamentary elections, the SYL secured a majority and formed the government under Prime Minister Abdirashid Ali Shermarke.

In 1967, Shermarke was elected president, defeating the incumbent Aden Abdullah Osman in a peaceful transition of power.

Military Rule and the Era of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (1969–1991)

A major turning point occurred in 1969, when President Shermarke was assassinated. This led to a military coup by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who suspended the constitution, banned political parties, and established one-party socialist rule under the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP).

Key Leader:

Mohamed Siad Barre – Ruled Somalia for over two decades. Under his authoritarian leadership, electoral politics were replaced with centralised state control and repression.

Outcome:

No elections occurred under Barre’s rule. His regime collapsed in 1991, plunging Somalia into civil war and anarchy.

Transitional and Fragmented Governance (1991–2004)

Following Barre’s fall, Somalia experienced complete state collapse. Various clan-based warlords and factions vied for power. No effective central government or national elections took place during this period.

Notable Factions (Non-Electoral):

United Somali Congress (USC)

Somali National Alliance (SNA)

Islamic Courts Union (ICU) – Rose in prominence in the early 2000s before being ousted by Ethiopian forces in 2006.

Transitional Federal Government and State-Building Efforts (2004–2012)

The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was established in 2004, initiating slow steps toward re-establishing national institutions.

Major Political Development:

In 2009, Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, a former ICU leader, was elected president through a parliamentary vote by the Transitional Federal Parliament.

Federal Republic and Indirect Electoral System (2012–2025)

In 2012, Somalia adopted a provisional constitution and established the Federal Government of Somalia. Direct elections remained elusive due to insecurity, but a clan-based indirect voting system continued.

Key Elections and Parties:

2012 Presidential Election:

President Elected: Hassan Sheikh Mohamud (Peace and Development Party)

2017 Presidential Election:

President Elected: Mohamed Abdullahi "Farmaajo" (Tayo Party), defeating the incumbent Hassan Sheikh Mohamud.

2022 Presidential Election:

President Elected: Hassan Sheikh Mohamud (re-elected, defeating Farmaajo in a hotly contested vote).

Major Parties:

Peace and Development Party (PDP) – Centrist party led by Hassan Sheikh Mohamud.

Tayo Party – Reformist party led by Farmaajo.

Union for Peace and Development Party (UPD) – A coalition evolved from the PDP.

2025 Outlook:

As of mid-2025, plans for Somalia’s first one-person-one-vote national election are under discussion, but logistical, financial, and security challenges remain.

Somalia's political journey from independence to civil war and reconstruction reflects the challenges of building democratic institutions in a complex, clan-based society. From the hopeful early elections of the 1960s to the authoritarian era of Siad Barre, followed by fragmentation and fragile state-building, the road has been arduous. While Somalia has not yet achieved universal suffrage-based elections at the national level, its political institutions are gradually evolving, with indirect elections producing competitive presidential contests and peaceful transitions of power.

Electoral Violence & Irregularities in Somalia (1900–2025): A Historical Overview

Somalia's electoral history, particularly from its independence in 1960 onwards, has been marked by periods of conflict, instability, and democratic fragility. Electoral violence, irregularities, and procedural breakdowns have occurred frequently due to weak institutions, civil unrest, and factional politics. Below is a comprehensive account of reported irregularities, violence, annulments, delays, and boycotts during elections in Somalia from 1900 to 2025.

Irregularities and Violence in Somali Elections

1969 General Elections

The parliamentary elections held on 26 March 1969 were marred by widespread allegations of fraud and vote-rigging. Although the elections were officially declared free and fair, opposition parties accused the ruling Somali Youth League (SYL) of manipulating results through intimidation and electoral malpractices. Just six days after the elections, on 15 October 1969, President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated, prompting a military coup led by Major General Siad Barre.

Post-Civil War Electoral Disruption (1991–2000)

Following the collapse of the Barre regime in 1991, Somalia plunged into civil war, leading to the complete absence of a functioning central government. During this period, no national elections were held, and political authority was fragmented among warlords and clan-based militias. The absence of state control made any notion of free or credible elections impossible.

2000 Arta Peace Process Elections

Held in Djibouti under the Arta Peace Process, the 2000 Transitional National Government (TNG) elections were conducted in exile due to insecurity in Somalia. Though relatively peaceful, these elections lacked broad clan representation, and the absence of popular voting led critics to question their legitimacy.

2004–2012 Transitional Federal Institutions

The 2004 elections, which led to the creation of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), were also conducted outside Somalia (in Nairobi, Kenya). Elections were indirect and based on clan quotas (the 4.5 formula), with no universal suffrage. Political horse-trading, bribery, and external influence—particularly from neighbouring countries and international stakeholders—were frequently reported.

2012 Indirect Parliamentary Elections

Though hailed as a step towards democracy, the 2012 elections were not direct and saw only 135 clan elders choosing members of parliament. Reports of bribery, corruption, and intimidation emerged, with observers noting widespread vote-buying among parliamentarians and candidates seeking the presidency.

2016/17 Presidential Election

In February 2017, Somalia held a highly controlled indirect presidential election. Due to insecurity, voting was restricted to selected electoral colleges. According to Transparency International and local civil society, the process was marred by:

Large-scale vote-buying,

Intimidation by armed groups,

Foreign interference, particularly from Qatar and the UAE.

Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed "Farmaajo" was elected President, defeating incumbent Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. While the outcome was generally accepted, the flawed electoral environment cast doubts on democratic credibility.

2021–2022 Electoral Crisis

Originally scheduled for 2020, the parliamentary and presidential elections faced repeated delays:

Boycott: In April 2021, opposition parties boycotted the proposed extension of President Farmaajo’s term after his mandate expired.

Violence: Violent clashes broke out in Mogadishu between government forces and opposition-aligned militias. Civil society groups condemned the government's use of force to suppress dissent.

Stalemate: Disagreements over electoral procedures between the federal government and regional states (notably Jubbaland and Puntland) led to a near-total political paralysis.

After months of UN-mediated negotiations, elections resumed under the indirect electoral model in 2022, culminating in the peaceful transfer of power to Hassan Sheikh Mohamud.

Elections Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted (1900–2025)

From coups and clan conflict to foreign interference and procedural breakdowns, Somalia's electoral history is a testament to the country’s complex struggle for representative governance. While recent elections—particularly in 2022—have seen peaceful transfers of power, persistent irregularities and the absence of universal suffrage highlight the long journey Somalia still faces in building a robust and inclusive democracy.

Electoral Democracy in Somalia from 1900 to 2025: Rankings, Reforms, and Regressions

Somalia’s trajectory in terms of electoral democracy between 1900 and 2025 has been one of extreme volatility, marked by colonial legacies, military rule, civil conflict, fragile transitions, and fledgling democratic reforms. It has oscillated between democratic aspiration and authoritarian regression, with only intermittent progress reflected in global democracy indices.

Colonial Legacy and the Early Years (1900–1960)

From 1900 until independence in 1960, Somalia was fragmented under colonial rule—British Somaliland in the north and Italian Somaliland in the south. During this time, electoral democracy was virtually non-existent. The governance structures were colonial in nature, with no provisions for genuine representative institutions.

Post-Independence Experimentation (1960–1969)

Somalia’s independence in 1960 saw a brief but significant flirtation with multiparty democracy. The first national elections were held in 1964, followed by the more contested 1969 elections. Although flawed by allegations of vote-buying and clan-based patronage, these elections represented the country’s earliest steps towards democratic practice. Somalia’s ranking on any notional democracy index in this period would have been modest but cautiously optimistic by African post-colonial standards.

However, the 1969 assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke led to a military coup by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, ending democratic experimentation.

Authoritarian Rule and State Collapse (1969–1991)

Under Siad Barre, Somalia transformed into a Marxist-Leninist one-party state. The Supreme Revolutionary Council banned political parties, dissolved the National Assembly, and centralised power. Elections ceased to exist in any meaningful form, replaced by state propaganda and coercion.

By the 1980s, as repression mounted and opposition grew, Somalia fell into civil war. The collapse of Barre’s regime in 1991 initiated decades of statelessness, during which the country effectively dropped off any global democracy or governance index.

Anarchy, Warlordism, and International Efforts (1991–2004)

Between 1991 and the early 2000s, Somalia became synonymous with failed statehood. The absence of a functioning central government meant no elections, no parliament, and no electoral democracy. During this period, the country was ranked at the bottom of the Economist Intelligence Unit’s (EIU) Democracy Index and other international assessments—if it was ranked at all.

Numerous peace talks attempted to establish transitional governance, but these were repeatedly undermined by factional violence and warlord rivalries.

Transitional Federal Institutions and Tentative Progress (2004–2012)

The creation of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004, supported by the African Union and international donors, was a turning point. Though indirect in nature (parliamentarians were selected by elders rather than elected by citizens), it marked a slow re-entry into structured governance.

In 2009 and again in 2012, transitional frameworks enabled the formation of federal institutions, including a provisional constitution. However, elections remained indirect, and Somalia remained classified as an “authoritarian regime” in global democracy rankings, with EIU scoring it among the world’s lowest-rated countries for political participation and pluralism.

Federalisation and the Democratic Push (2012–2021)

The Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) was formed in 2012, and new hope emerged for democratic reform. A nascent federal system began taking root, with the establishment of member states like Puntland, Jubaland, and Galmudug. The government planned to hold one-person-one-vote elections by 2016, but security concerns and logistical issues led to another indirect electoral process.

Somalia's 2016/17 elections, though indirect, involved over 14,000 electoral delegates and were deemed more inclusive than previous cycles. Nevertheless, widespread allegations of vote-rigging and bribery plagued the process.

By 2020, hopes for a direct popular vote were again deferred. The elections held in 2021–2022 followed a complex indirect model through clan elders and regional state assemblies. Though Somalia improved slightly in the democracy rankings, it remained under the authoritarian category in indices such as Freedom House and the EIU.

Backsliding, Delays, and Fragility (2021–2025)

The period from 2021 to 2025 saw renewed concern over democratic backsliding. Disputes between the federal government and federal member states delayed elections. Political violence, especially in Mogadishu, and attempts by leaders to extend their mandates led to accusations of creeping authoritarianism.

Despite international mediation, Somalia continued to miss benchmarks for electoral reform. As of 2025, the long-promised direct elections had yet to materialise. Civil society participation remained low, and press freedom was under threat.

In the 2024 iteration of the EIU Democracy Index, Somalia was again categorised as an “authoritarian regime,” ranking among the bottom 10 countries globally. Its score reflected weak political culture, absence of direct suffrage, and minimal civil liberties.

A Fragile Democratic Horizon

Somalia’s journey from colonial subjugation to democratic aspiration remains incomplete. While institutions have begun to take shape, and there have been efforts at reform, Somalia’s electoral democracy remains deeply constrained by insecurity, political fragmentation, and weak institutions. Though international support and constitutional frameworks provide a platform for future reform, the country’s electoral future depends on genuine political will, trust-building, and the implementation of universal suffrage.

Major Electoral Reforms in Somalia (1900–2025)

Somalia's electoral history, spanning colonial legacies, authoritarianism, civil war, and fragile democratic renewal, has been shaped by a complex set of reforms—some formal, others improvised. Between 1900 and 2025, electoral reforms in Somalia were driven by both internal political realignments and international pressures. Below is a chronological overview of the key reforms and structural changes that impacted Somalia's voting systems, representation, and political participation.

Colonial Period and Early Electoral Frameworks (1900–1960)

During Italian and British colonial rule, no formal national electoral system existed. The political system was largely exclusionary and autocratic, with governance centred on indirect rule, clan-based appointments, and minimal local participation.

British Somaliland (1884–1960): Under British administration, few local councils were created, but these were mostly advisory and appointed.

Italian Somaliland (1889–1960): The Italians introduced limited municipal representation by the 1950s. These councils were heavily monitored and influenced by colonial authorities.

Independence and the First Elections (1960–1969)

After gaining independence in July 1960, Somalia united the former British and Italian territories. A brief democratic era followed.

1964 General Elections Reform: Somalia held its first post-independence elections with a multi-party system and direct universal suffrage for male and female citizens over 18. The electoral law formalised secret balloting, single-member constituencies, and proportional representation.

1969 Electoral Code Modernisation: Before the October coup, Somalia improved the independence of the National Electoral Commission, introduced ID-based voting, and set stricter rules for campaign finance and party registration. However, the reforms were never fully implemented due to the military coup that same year.

Authoritarian Era and One-Party Rule (1969–1991)

Following the military takeover by General Mohamed Siad Barre in 1969, electoral activities were suspended, and Somalia became a one-party state.

1979 Referendum Reform: A new constitution was passed via a nationwide referendum, establishing the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) as the sole political entity. The 1979 parliamentary elections featured only SRSP candidates. Although citizens voted, the process lacked democratic choice.

Mock Elections of 1984 and 1989: These were not genuine electoral reforms but exercises in state propaganda. Voters could only approve pre-selected candidates, with reported participation rates of over 90%—widely viewed as fabricated.

Collapse, Anarchy, and Non-State Systems (1991–2000)

The fall of Barre’s regime led to civil war and state collapse. For nearly a decade, Somalia had no functioning central government, and electoral reforms were absent.

However, in regions like Somaliland and Puntland, nascent democratic practices emerged.

Somaliland Constitution (1997, formalised 2001): Introduced multi-party democracy, electoral commissions, and peaceful presidential elections—a remarkable localised reform.

Puntland Charter (1998): Laid the groundwork for future participatory governance, although elections remained largely clan-negotiated.

Transitional Federal Period and International Mediation (2000–2012)

Efforts to restore governance led to the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) under the Arta peace process.

2004 Transitional Federal Charter: Introduced a clan-based "4.5 formula", allocating parliamentary seats among major clans and minorities. It was a compromise, not a democratic reform, but crucial in re-establishing some representation.

Indirect Elections (2004, 2009): Members of parliament were selected by clan elders, not the public, under UN-AU supervision.

Provisional Constitution and New Electoral Vision (2012–2016)

2012 Provisional Constitution: Marked a significant reform by laying the foundation for future universal suffrage. It proposed an Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), outlined electoral rights, and called for a shift away from clan-based power sharing.

2016 Electoral Model Reform: While still indirect, the model expanded the voting base. Instead of 135 elders alone selecting MPs, 14,025 delegates (51 per seat) voted, with increased female participation targets. The model also introduced secret ballots, candidate vetting, and biometric registration of delegates.

Incremental Moves Towards One-Person, One-Vote (2017–2021)

2020 Electoral Law Reform (delayed implementation): The Federal Parliament passed a law for direct elections nationwide. It envisioned:

Party-based competition.

Constituency demarcation.

National voter registry.

Enhanced INEC capacity.

However, due to security issues and political deadlock, the 2021 elections reverted to an indirect model. Still, this law remains a key reform benchmark.

Electoral Management and Digital Innovations (2021–2025)

Strengthening of NIEC: The Independent National Electoral Commission was increasingly empowered, albeit constrained by federal member states' reluctance to cede electoral authority.

Introduction of Biometric Voter Technology (Pilots): Somalia began piloting biometric voter ID systems and digital registration, with support from international donors like the EU and UNDP.

Party Registration Reforms: Dozens of political parties registered under the new framework, though their role in indirect elections remained limited.

An Unfinished Journey

Somalia’s electoral reforms have been gradual, fragile, and often interrupted by political instability and insecurity. While real efforts—especially from 2012 onward—have laid the groundwork for universal suffrage, the dream of full democratic elections remains deferred. The reforms of 2012, 2016, and 2020 signal intent, but implementation continues to be the nation’s greatest electoral challenge.

Comparing Somalia’s Electoral Systems from 1900 to 2025: Evolution, Experiments, and Democratic Realities

It might seem redundant at first glance to compare Somalia with Somalia over time, but doing so reveals a telling story of a nation caught in the tides of colonialism, post-independence ambition, authoritarian rule, civil strife, and eventual steps—however fragile—towards democratisation. From 1900 to 2025, Somalia’s electoral systems underwent profound transformations. This article compares the country’s political structure across different eras to assess which period, if any, reflected greater democratic legitimacy.

Pre-Independence Period (1900–1960): No Genuine Electoral Framework

Under colonial rule, Somalia was divided into two spheres: British Somaliland in the north and Italian Somaliland in the south. Neither territory experienced democratic elections in the modern sense.

British Somaliland operated under indirect rule, relying on traditional clan leaders and British administrators. There were no elections.

Italian Somaliland, under fascist rule until World War II, had an even more autocratic structure. Post-war, it came under UN trusteeship administered by Italy (1950–1960), during which some limited electoral activities began at the local level under heavy Italian oversight.

Democratic Score: Extremely low – no representative institutions, no universal suffrage, no real electoral system.

 Post-Independence Democracy (1960–1969): A Brief Democratic Experiment

With the unification of British and Italian Somaliland in 1960, Somalia experienced its first national elections.

System: Parliamentary system with a president elected by the National Assembly.

Voting Method: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP).

Notable Election: The 1964 general election and the 1969 parliamentary election, both conducted under universal male suffrage (limited female participation).

Parties: Multiple parties, though the Somali Youth League (SYL) dominated.

Despite clientelism, clan-based politics, and weak institutions, this era reflected Somalia’s most democratic moment up to that point.

Democratic Score: Moderate – competitive multiparty elections, constitutional governance, though marred by inefficiency and fragility.

Authoritarian Rule under Siad Barre (1969–1991): Democracy Dismantled

After the 1969 military coup led by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, Somalia entered a long period of authoritarianism.

System: One-party socialist state under the Supreme Revolutionary Council.

Elections: None until a heavily managed referendum in 1979 for a new constitution; parliamentary “elections” in 1984 lacked real opposition.

Representation: Power was centralised; clan identities suppressed; dissent was violently crushed.

Barre’s regime eliminated any semblance of electoral democracy and governed through coercion and propaganda.

Democratic Score: Zero – totalitarian in nature with no political pluralism or civil liberties.

Civil War and Institutional Collapse (1991–2004): Electoral Vacuum

With Barre’s fall in 1991, Somalia descended into civil war. Central authority collapsed and warlords filled the vacuum.

System: None – no functioning government or electoral process.

Representation: Governance was de facto clan-based and territorially fragmented.

This was the least democratic period in Somalia’s modern history.

Democratic Score: Non-existent – statelessness, violence, and no central electoral authority.

Transitional and Federal Phases (2004–2025): A Fragile Climb Back

Somalia’s modern electoral revival has been slow and deeply constrained.

2004–2012: Transitional Federal Government operated via indirect selection—clan elders appointed MPs who elected presidents.

2012–2021: Federal Government of Somalia established, still reliant on indirect elections using the “4.5 clan formula”.

2022 Presidential Election: Indirect again—clan-appointed MPs elected the president (Hassan Sheikh Mohamud).

Future Hopes: There have been pushes toward universal suffrage, but technical and security challenges have delayed one-person-one-vote elections.

System: Indirect electoral system under a federal parliamentary model.

Democratic Score: Limited – procedural steps toward representation but undermined by clan politics, weak institutions, and electoral insecurity.

Which Somalia Was More Democratic?

Verdict: The 1960–1969 period stands out as the most democratic era in Somalia’s history, despite its limitations. The post-2004 era has seen democratic elements re-emerge, but electoral legitimacy remains hampered by indirect voting, clan dominance, and fragile state structures. Somalia’s full return to democracy hinges on achieving direct elections, strengthening institutions, and overcoming conflict.

The First Democratic Elections in the 20th Century: Countries and Electoral Systems

The 20th century was a defining era for global democracy. With the collapse of empires, decolonisation, and waves of constitutional reform, dozens of countries held their first democratic elections—paving the way for representative governance. This article explores key nations that held democratic elections for the first time in the 20th century and outlines the electoral systems they adopted.

India (1951–52)

System: First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)
After gaining independence from British rule in 1947, India held its first general elections in 1951–52. The country adopted a Westminster-style parliamentary system with FPTP voting, a method still in use today. With over 170 million eligible voters, it became the largest democratic exercise in history at the time.

Germany (Weimar Republic, 1919)

System: Proportional Representation (PR)
Following the collapse of the German Empire in World War I, the Weimar Constitution introduced universal suffrage and a proportional representation system. The 1919 election was the first to include women as voters and candidates. Although innovative, the fragmented parliament contributed to political instability.

Japan (1928)

System: Limited Plurality / SNTV (Single Non-Transferable Vote)
Japan's first democratic election under universal male suffrage occurred in 1928. While not fully representative (women were excluded until 1946), it marked a crucial step. The SNTV system allowed voters one vote in multi-member districts—a system that persisted for decades.

Turkey (1950)

System: FPTP
Although the Republic of Turkey was established in 1923, genuine multi-party democracy emerged with the 1950 general elections. The ruling CHP (Republican People's Party) peacefully ceded power to the Democrat Party. This was under the FPTP system, marking a rare democratic milestone in the region.

South Africa (1994)

System: Proportional Representation
South Africa’s first truly democratic election came in 1994, ending decades of apartheid. For the first time, all racial groups were allowed to vote. The nation used a closed-list proportional representation system, ensuring wide representation and laying the foundation for the post-apartheid political order.

Ghana (1951)

System: Mixed / Majoritarian
Then known as the Gold Coast, Ghana held its first elections under limited self-rule in 1951. The system combined majoritarian elements with colonial appointment structures. Nevertheless, it was a landmark for African democracy and led to full independence in 1957.

Indonesia (1955)

System: Proportional Representation
Indonesia’s first national elections came ten years after independence from the Dutch. The PR system was chosen to reflect the country's vast ethnic and religious diversity. Though short-lived due to authoritarian reversals, it was a milestone in Southeast Asian democratic development.

Nigeria (1959)

System: Parliamentary (FPTP)
Nigeria’s first general elections were held in 1959 in preparation for full independence from Britain. The elections were parliamentary and followed the FPTP model, a legacy of British colonial administration.

Israel (1949)

System: Proportional Representation
Following the establishment of the state in 1948, Israel conducted its first Knesset elections in 1949. The entire country served as a single electoral district under pure PR, a system that remains intact today and contributes to its vibrant but fragmented political landscape.

South Korea (1948)

System: Majoritarian / Two-Round
The Republic of Korea held its first elections in 1948, adopting a presidential system. The National Assembly elections used a two-round system, reflecting both American and local influences. These elections laid the groundwork for Korea’s future democracy.

The 20th century saw the expansion of suffrage, the birth of new nations, and the spread of electoral innovation. From PR systems in Germany and Israel to FPTP in India and Nigeria, the century's first democratic elections were diverse in form but united in ambition: to give the people a voice. While not all were perfect or lasting, each represented a pivotal step towards modern democratic governance.

Timeline & Summary of Major Elections in Somalia (1900–2025)

Somalia’s electoral journey has been deeply shaped by colonial legacies, military dictatorship, civil war, and protracted efforts to establish a stable democratic state. From colonial assemblies to fragile modern indirect elections, Somalia’s path to representative governance has been turbulent. Below is a timeline highlighting key elections and pivotal political events that shaped Somali democracy from 1900 to 2025.

Timeline of Major Elections & Key Political Events in Somalia (1900–2025)

1900–1949: Colonial Period and Political Awakening

1900–1941 – Somalia is divided: British Somaliland (north) and Italian Somaliland (south). No meaningful elections take place; power rests with colonial governors.

1941 – British forces take control of Italian Somaliland during WWII.

1947–1949 – UN grants Italy trusteeship over southern Somalia (Trust Territory of Somaliland) on condition of preparing the country for independence.

1950–1960: First Elections and Road to Independence

1956 – First legislative elections held in Italian Somaliland under UN supervision. Somali Youth League (SYL) wins majority.

1959 – Second parliamentary elections confirm SYL dominance.

26 June 1960 – British Somaliland gains independence.

1 July 1960 – Unification of British and Italian Somaliland into the Somali Republic. Formation of first national government.

1960–1969: Fragile Democracy

1964 – First post-independence national elections. SYL wins but faces growing opposition and regional tensions.

1969 (March) – Second general elections held. Widespread allegations of fraud and vote buying.

15 October 1969 – President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke assassinated.

21 October 1969 – Military coup d’état led by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre. Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended. Democracy ends.

1969–1991: Authoritarian Rule under Siad Barre

No elections held.

Rule marked by centralised power, Cold War alliances, and later, widespread rebellion and human rights abuses.

1991 – Siad Barre ousted by rebel factions. The state collapses into civil war. No functioning central government for over a decade.

1991–2004: Civil War and State Collapse

1991–2000 – Somalia becomes a patchwork of warlord fiefdoms and autonomous regions.

2000 – Formation of the Transitional National Government (TNG) in Djibouti.

2004 – Transitional Federal Government (TFG) formed in Nairobi. Indirect election of parliament and president by clan elders.

2009–2012: Federal Framework and Emerging Institutions

2009 – Sheikh Sharif Ahmed elected President in Djibouti through indirect parliamentary vote.

2012 (August) – End of transitional period.

September 2012 – First Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) formed.

Hassan Sheikh Mohamud elected President by a new Federal Parliament.

2016–2017: Clan-Based Indirect Voting

October–December 2016 – Indirect parliamentary elections (14,025 clan delegates select MPs).

8 February 2017 – Mohamed Abdullahi Farmaajo elected President by Parliament.

2021–2022: Political Crisis and Delayed Elections

February 2021 – Farmaajo’s term ends; elections delayed due to disputes with federal states.

April 2021 – Parliament controversially extends Farmaajo’s mandate by two years, sparking unrest.

May 2022 – After a year of delays, presidential elections held.

Hassan Sheikh Mohamud re-elected as President in indirect vote.

2024–2025: Electoral Reform and Direct Elections (Planned)

2024 – Parliament passes plan for universal suffrage elections (one person, one vote) by 2025.

Expected 2025 – Somalia aims to hold its first direct national elections in over 50 years. Progress dependent on security, logistics, and electoral law reforms.

Somalia’s electoral development reflects the complex interplay of colonial legacies, authoritarianism, conflict, and resilience. Since 2000, efforts have been underway to stabilise governance through indirect elections under the clan-based 4.5 power-sharing formula. While the country remains politically fragile, the 2025 plan for direct voting could mark a historic turning point if realised—restoring democratic legitimacy last seen before 1969.

Major Global and Domestic Electoral Events that Reshaped Democracy in Somalia (1900–2025)

The democratic trajectory of Somalia has been anything but linear. From colonial occupation to independence, from fleeting multiparty experiments to authoritarian rule and state collapse, Somalia's electoral history has been repeatedly reshaped by both global dynamics and internal upheaval. This article explores key political events—revolutions, coups, constitutional reforms, foreign interventions, and peace agreements—that have left lasting impacts on Somalia’s democratic landscape between 1900 and 2025.

Colonial Legacy and Partition (1900–1960)

Event: Colonial Occupation by Britain and Italy
Impact: The artificial division of Somalia into British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland prevented the emergence of unified political structures or electoral traditions. Governance was dominated by colonial administrators, leaving little room for indigenous democratic institutions.

Event: Post-WWII Trusteeship and UN Oversight (1950–1960)
Impact: Under UN Trusteeship, Italian Somaliland was prepared for independence. This included the establishment of local councils and limited elections, laying the groundwork for political parties such as the Somali Youth League (SYL). These reforms were the earliest steps towards self-rule.

Independence and First Elections (1960–1969)

Event: Somali Independence and Unification (1960)
Impact: The union of British and Italian Somaliland created the Somali Republic. The first national elections were held under a multiparty parliamentary system. Despite clan rivalries, this was Somalia’s most democratic era.

Event: 1964 & 1969 General Elections
Impact: Marked by high participation and party competition, these elections reflected early democratic potential, although political fragmentation and clan loyalty soon destabilised the system.

Military Coup and Authoritarianism (1969–1991)

Event: Siad Barre’s Coup d’état (October 1969)
Impact: The assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke triggered a military takeover. Siad Barre suspended the constitution and banned political parties. A Marxist-Leninist regime replaced democracy with centralised, autocratic rule.

Event: Adoption of 1979 Constitution via Referendum
Impact: Though a referendum was held, it lacked credibility. It legitimised Barre’s one-party rule and established the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) as the only legal party, ending meaningful elections.

Event: Cold War Alliances
Impact: Somalia’s shifting alliances—from the Soviet Union to the United States—provided external support for Barre’s dictatorship, delaying democratic reforms in favour of geopolitical influence.

State Collapse and Civil War (1991–2000)

Event: Overthrow of Siad Barre (1991)
Impact: The regime's collapse led to the disintegration of central authority. Civil war between clan militias erupted. No elections or national governance structure existed for over a decade.

Event: Emergence of Somaliland and Puntland (1990s)
Impact: Breakaway regions like Somaliland declared independence and conducted their own local elections. Though unrecognised internationally, Somaliland held several peaceful elections, contrasting sharply with the rest of Somalia.

International Peacebuilding and Transition (2000–2012)

Event: Arta Peace Conference (2000)
Impact: Backed by IGAD and the Arab League, this led to the creation of the Transitional National Government (TNG). Parliamentary seats were distributed via clan-based allocation (4.5 formula). Elections were indirect.

Event: Establishment of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004
Impact: The TFG brought in a new charter and expanded the parliament. The president was elected by MPs rather than through direct popular vote. The system sought inclusivity but remained weak.

Federalism and Fragile Revival (2012–2025)

Event: 2012 Provisional Constitution & Federal Government
Impact: Marked the official end of the transitional phase. The Federal Government of Somalia was formed, and the parliament (House of the People) gained legislative authority. However, elections continued to be indirect.

Event: 2016 and 2021 Indirect Elections
Impact: Both elections were held under the 4.5 clan power-sharing system. Members of Parliament were selected by clan elders and regional delegates, who then elected the president. These elections were criticised for lacking universal suffrage.

Event: Push for One-Person-One-Vote Elections (2016–2025)
Impact: Although constitutional frameworks and electoral commissions were established, repeated delays due to political disputes, insecurity, and institutional weakness prevented direct elections. The goal of universal suffrage remains unfulfilled as of 2025.

Role of Global and Regional Interventions

Event: African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM)
Impact: Since 2007, AMISOM has played a vital role in stabilising Somalia. It provided security for electoral processes, particularly in Mogadishu, and helped facilitate state-building.

Event: International Electoral Support (UN, EU, etc.)
Impact: Foreign donors and advisors have helped fund and structure electoral preparations, including biometric voter registration and drafting electoral laws. However, progress has been inconsistent.

Democracy Shaped by Disruption and Delay

From colonial suppression to civil collapse, and from fragile transitions to today’s tentative federal democracy, Somalia’s electoral evolution has been repeatedly shaped by revolutions, coups, and reforms. The most significant democratic turning points remain:

1960 Independence and the First National Elections

1969 Military Coup Ending Democracy

1991 State Collapse

2004–2012 Transitional Reconstruction

2012 Onward: Federal Restructuring and Electoral Planning

CSV-Style Table: General Elections in Somalia (1900–2025)

Somalia’s Electoral Evolution from 1900 to 2025

The story of Somalia’s elections is as complex as the nation’s turbulent political landscape. From hopeful beginnings post-independence to decades of authoritarian rule, civil war, and a slow return to representative governance, Somalia’s journey through the ballot box tells a compelling tale of resilience and reinvention.

The Early Republic: Hope and High Turnout

In 1960, following the unification of British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland, Somalia held its first general elections under a parliamentary republic. The Somali Youth League (SYL) emerged as the dominant party. These early elections, including the 1964 polls, saw remarkably high turnout — often cited above 85% — as citizens engaged in nation-building after colonial rule.

However, by 1969, growing dissatisfaction over corruption and political instability culminated in a coup led by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, ending the democratic experiment.

Authoritarian Rule and a One-Party State

In 1986, Somalia held a national referendum and “election” under a one-party system led by Barre’s Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party. With a near-total turnout — likely exaggerated — the regime claimed mass support. Yet the authoritarian grip, human rights abuses, and clan-based repression laid the groundwork for eventual state collapse.

Collapse, Chaos, and the Long Road Back

The outbreak of civil war in 1991 dismantled all state institutions, with no national elections held for over a decade. In 2000, the internationally brokered Arta Process established a transitional parliament, whose members were appointed rather than elected. This system continued under the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), marked by internal divisions and weak central authority.

Indirect Elections and the Federal Turn

From 2012 onward, Somalia began to stabilise. It established a Federal Government and held indirect elections based on clan-based power sharing and elite selection — not universal suffrage. Although not democratic in the Western sense, these elections marked a cautious return to order. The 2016–17 and 2021–22 indirect elections, though heavily delayed and marred by dispute, led to peaceful transfers of power.

2024–2025: Turning Point or False Dawn?

Somalia plans to hold one-person-one-vote elections in 2024–25 for the first time since 1969. If implemented successfully, this will represent a historic shift toward genuine democratic participation. However, the path remains fraught — with insecurity, electoral logistics, and political will all under question.

Somalia’s electoral history is far from linear. From initial democratic enthusiasm to decades of autocracy and civil war, followed by indirect selections, the country is now on the verge of a pivotal democratic reform. Whether this will herald a new chapter or repeat past patterns remains to be seen — but the international community and Somalis alike are watching closely.

Global Electoral Trends by Decade: A Somali Perspective (1900–2025)

Somalia’s tumultuous political evolution from colonial rule through authoritarianism, civil war, and tentative democratisation reflects, in many ways, the broader arc of global electoral trends. From the early 20th century to 2025, the world has witnessed recurring cycles of democratisation, innovation, and authoritarian pushback—Somalia’s experience has often mirrored, and at times diverged from, these global patterns. Below is a decade-by-decade summary, connecting Somali electoral developments to global trends.

1900s–1920s: Colonial Exclusion and Indirect Governance

Global Trend:
The early 20th century was marked by European colonial domination, restricted suffrage, and indirect rule in colonised regions. Democratisation was largely confined to Western Europe and North America, often limited by gender and race.

Somalia:
Under British and Italian colonial rule, no elections took place. Governance structures excluded locals from meaningful participation, reflecting the wider colonial suppression of electoral rights across Africa and Asia.

1930s–1940s: War, Fascism, and Nascent Decolonisation

Global Trend:
The rise of fascism and global conflict saw democratic reversals, particularly in Europe. However, the end of World War II sparked decolonisation movements and early demands for self-rule in Africa and Asia.

Somalia:
Still under foreign rule, Somalia remained excluded from electoral reform. However, by the late 1940s, post-war trusteeship arrangements under the UN began setting the stage for eventual independence and political development.

1950s: Winds of Change and the First Electoral Experiments

Global Trend:
Decolonisation accelerated. India, Ghana, and other colonies held early elections. Electoral participation expanded globally, though often under one-party or semi-authoritarian systems.

Somalia:
The 1950s saw the emergence of local Somali political parties and the first elections under Italian UN trusteeship. Municipal councils and limited legislative assemblies were introduced, mirroring Africa’s wider entry into electoral governance.

1960s: Independence and Democratic Breakthroughs

Global Trend:
Many African states gained independence and experimented with multi-party democracy. However, by the late 1960s, coups and one-party rule began to dominate the continent.

Somalia:
After independence in 1960, Somalia held competitive multi-party elections in 1964 and 1969, briefly positioning itself as a model African democracy. This reflected a broader, if short-lived, post-independence democratic optimism across the continent.

1970s: Authoritarian Rollbacks and One-Party States

Global Trend:
A wave of authoritarianism swept across post-colonial states. Many adopted one-party rule, citing national unity. Military coups became common, undermining electoral competition.

Somalia:
The 1969 military coup brought Siad Barre to power. Elections were suspended, and a socialist one-party system was installed—mirroring a broader regional and global trend of democracy being rolled back in favour of authoritarian stability.

1980s: Entrenched Dictatorships and Sham Elections

Global Trend:
While Latin America saw some democratic re-openings, many African and Middle Eastern states held controlled, non-competitive elections. Electoral manipulation and party dominance were prevalent.

Somalia:
Barre’s regime held staged referenda and parliamentary "elections" under the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party. These mimicked democratic forms but were devoid of genuine choice—a pattern observed in numerous authoritarian states of the era.

1990s: Post-Cold War Democratisation and Civil Collapse

Global Trend:
The end of the Cold War led to a democratic surge. Dozens of countries transitioned to multi-party systems, with increased support for electoral commissions and civil liberties.

Somalia:
In contrast, Somalia collapsed into civil war in 1991. With no central government, it missed the "Third Wave" of democratisation. However, Somaliland and Puntland introduced localised democratic structures, a unique deviation from the state's overall anarchy.

2000s: Hybrid Regimes and Fragile Democracies

Global Trend:
The rise of "hybrid regimes" combined elections with authoritarian control. Meanwhile, international assistance helped build electoral systems in fragile and post-conflict states.

Somalia:
Somalia saw transitional governance return via the Arta process (2000). The "4.5 clan formula" was introduced—a power-sharing arrangement without direct elections. Though not democratic, it was a step toward political inclusion. Globally, such transitional arrangements were increasingly used in conflict zones.

2010s: Electoral Innovation and Populist Backlash

Global Trend:
Biometric voter registration, digital ID systems, and electronic voting gained traction. However, the decade also saw democratic backsliding, populism, and weakened electoral norms.

Somalia:
From 2012, Somalia adopted indirect elections via electoral colleges. The 2016 vote saw expanded delegate-based elections with biometric vetting. Yet delays, insecurity, and elite manipulation hampered democratic consolidation—common challenges in other fragile states.

2020s (to 2025): Digital Reform vs Delayed Democracy

Global Trend:
A mixed picture emerged: some states advanced e-governance and electoral transparency, while others used technology to suppress dissent. Authoritarianism and digital disinformation threatened electoral integrity worldwide.

Somalia:
Despite plans for direct universal suffrage, the 2021 elections reverted to indirect voting due to political impasse. However, the establishment of the National Electoral Commission and digital innovations, such as biometric voter registration pilots, reflect alignment with global best practices—even as full democracy remains aspirational.

Somalia in a Global Context

Somalia’s electoral trajectory has been shaped by global waves of democracy, authoritarianism, and innovation—though often arriving late or in modified form due to internal conflict. From colonial exclusion and socialist dictatorship to fragile indirect elections and aspirations for universal suffrage, Somalia's path echoes global patterns but also reveals the unique constraints of state fragility.

Write like a political analyst explaining why the 2006 election in Somalia was controversial

The 2006 election in Somalia remains a vivid illustration of the complex interplay between clan politics, fragile institutions, and the enduring challenge of establishing democratic legitimacy in a failed state. Ostensibly held under the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), the election process was marred by deep-rooted divisions among Somalia’s clans, which continue to form the backbone of political power. Rather than being a direct, transparent poll, the process was an indirect selection by elders and political elites, raising serious questions about inclusivity and representation.

The fundamental controversy arose from the fact that large swathes of Somalia, particularly areas under the control of the Islamic Courts Union and other armed factions, were excluded from the electoral process. This exclusion not only delegitimised the TFG in the eyes of many Somalis but also entrenched the perception that the election was orchestrated under external influence, primarily by neighbouring Ethiopia and Western actors.

Moreover, allegations of vote-buying, intimidation, and manipulation were rife, reflecting the fragile nature of Somalia’s political institutions. The 2006 election exposed the persistent disconnect between the formal structures of governance and the realities on the ground—where power was negotiated through clan alliances and military strength rather than democratic mandate. In sum, the election underscored the enormous hurdles Somalia faced in transitioning from conflict to credible electoral democracy.

Summarise the 1900 Eastern European elections in a journalistic tone

The dawn of the 20th century in Eastern Europe was characterised by a patchwork of electoral experiments amid the region’s sprawling empires and nascent nation-states. The elections held around 1900 were, in most cases, heavily restricted affairs, limited to male property owners and influenced by aristocratic dominance. Universal suffrage remained an aspiration rather than reality, with significant portions of the population excluded from political participation.

In the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires, electoral processes were often manipulated to maintain imperial control, with elected bodies serving more as advisory councils than instruments of genuine power. Political parties, where they existed, operated under severe constraints, and the burgeoning labour and nationalist movements frequently faced repression.

Despite these limitations, the 1900 elections marked early signs of political mobilisation and the gradual emergence of parliamentary traditions in the region. They set the stage for the tumultuous decades ahead, where calls for democracy, national self-determination, and social reform would come to dominate the political landscape, ultimately reshaping Eastern Europe’s electoral and political fabric.

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