Ecuador’s Electoral System and Structure (1900–2025): A Historical Overview-Dr. Raju Ahmed Dipu

From the early 20th century to 2025, Ecuador’s electoral system has undergone numerous reforms, evolving from a limited, elite-driven majoritarian system to a more inclusive and proportional democratic framework. This article explores the various types of voting and representation used in Ecuador across time, highlighting key milestones in electoral development.

1900–1944: Restricted Suffrage and Majoritarian Tendencies

In the early 1900s, Ecuador's electoral system was rooted in a majoritarian model, with first-past-the-post (FPTP) voting used in most legislative and presidential elections. Suffrage was heavily restricted—primarily to literate men, landowners, and the urban elite. Elections often lacked transparency, were marred by fraud, and heavily influenced by military or conservative oligarchic interests.

Presidential Elections: Used a direct plurality vote (FPTP) system.

Legislative Elections: Conducted through single-member districts, also based on plurality voting.

Electoral irregularities and manipulation were common in this period.

1945–1978: Transition Toward Modernisation and Proportional Elements

A 1945 constitutional reform began Ecuador’s move toward a more structured and democratic electoral framework. The 1948 elections were particularly significant.

Example – Ecuador in 1948:
The 1948 general elections were held under a system that remained majoritarian in nature. The presidential election continued to be based on direct plurality voting, while legislative elections began to incorporate multi-member constituencies in some provinces. However, proportionality was limited, and electoral malpractices persisted. This marked a transitional phase, where hybrid electoral principles began to appear but were not yet formalised into a mixed or proportional system.

1979–1997: Proportional Representation Introduced

Following Ecuador’s return to democracy in 1979 after a period of military rule, the Constitution of 1979 marked a turning point in electoral reform. It introduced a proportional representation (PR) system for the National Congress.

Presidency: Shifted to a two-round majority system (if no candidate achieved 50% + 1 in the first round).

National Congress: Members elected through closed-list proportional representation using the D'Hondt method in multi-member constituencies.

Voting Rights: Universal suffrage was fully extended, including to illiterate citizens and women (although women technically gained the vote in 1929, its effective enforcement was patchy until the 1980s).

1998–2007: Strengthening Representation and Decentralisation

The 1998 Constitution expanded democratic participation and refined the PR system:

Introduced open-list PR, allowing voters to select individual candidates within party lists.

Enhanced indigenous representation and regional parity through electoral quotas and reforms.

Allowed dual ballots: one for the party and one for the candidate.

2008–2025: The Citizen Revolution and Modern Electoral Reforms

With the adoption of the 2008 Constitution under Rafael Correa’s leadership, Ecuador entered a new era of electoral reform:

National Assembly (unicameral): Members are elected through a mixed proportional system:

15 national members by closed-list PR.

116 provincial members by open-list PR in multi-member districts.

6 overseas members by PR.

Presidency: Remained under a two-round majoritarian system.

Gender parity laws required 50% female representation on candidate lists.

Compulsory voting was reaffirmed for all literate citizens aged 18–65, though voluntary for seniors, illiterate citizens, and those aged 16–18.

Technology and Oversight:

Introduction of electronic voting pilots in urban areas.

National Electoral Council (CNE) became the chief administrative authority, ensuring transparency and legality.

Ecuador’s electoral system evolved from majoritarian and exclusionary structures in the early 1900s to a hybrid proportional model with democratic safeguards by 2025. The adoption of proportional representation, inclusive voting rights, and institutional reforms reflects a broader Latin American trend towards democratic deepening, despite recurring political crises.

As of 2025, Ecuador employs a mixed electoral system—majoritarian for the presidency and proportional for the legislature—making it one of South America’s more representative electoral democracies.

When Did Ecuador Transition to a Multi-Party or Democratic Electoral System?

Ecuador’s path to a multi-party democratic electoral system has been long, complex, and punctuated by periods of authoritarianism, military rule, and constitutional reform. While democratic practices were intermittently adopted throughout the 20th century, a sustained and institutionalised multi-party democracy only truly began to take root in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

Early Electoral Experiments and Political Pluralism

Ecuador first adopted a republican constitution in 1830 following its separation from Gran Colombia. However, the country oscillated between caudillo rule and limited electoral participation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. Elections during this period were largely uncompetitive, often manipulated by ruling elites, and rarely reflective of a functioning multi-party democracy.

The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of liberal and conservative parties, marking the beginnings of political pluralism. However, these were not mass-based parties in the modern sense; instead, they served elite and regional interests, with limited engagement from the broader populace.

Military Influence and Authoritarian Interruptions

The mid-20th century was characterised by frequent interruptions to civilian rule. Military coups were common, notably in 1963 and again in 1972, which saw the rise of a nationalist military regime under General Guillermo Rodríguez Lara. During such periods, electoral processes were suspended or severely curtailed, and multi-party competition was suppressed.

Nevertheless, Ecuador retained the institutional memory of electoral competition, and various parties—albeit weak and often leader-centric—continued to exist during these authoritarian interludes.

The Democratic Transition of 1979

The decisive turning point came in 1979, when Ecuador returned to constitutional rule after nearly a decade of military government. This transition was marked by the promulgation of a new constitution that:

Restored the electoral calendar;

Established universal suffrage, including the full inclusion of illiterate citizens;

Introduced a framework for regular multi-party elections.

The 1978–79 general elections were held in two rounds, culminating in the election of Jaime Roldós Aguilera, a centre-left candidate representing the Concentration of People's Forces (CFP). His election symbolised the consolidation of a multi-party democracy. The period also saw the proliferation of new political movements across the ideological spectrum—from social democrats to Christian democrats and populists—reflecting a pluralistic shift in Ecuador’s political landscape.

Post-1979 Developments and Party System Volatility

Despite democratic gains, Ecuador’s party system remained highly fragmented and volatile. Personalist leadership, weak institutionalisation of parties, and recurrent political crises—including the removal or resignation of multiple elected presidents in the late 1990s and early 2000s—exposed the fragility of democratic governance.

Yet, elections continued to be held regularly, and peaceful transfers of power became the norm. The adoption of the 2008 Constitution under President Rafael Correa further restructured the political system, but also raised concerns about executive overreach.

Ecuador’s transition to a genuine multi-party democratic electoral system can be clearly traced to 1979, with the end of military rule and the adoption of a democratic constitution. While earlier electoral experiments occurred, they lacked the inclusive and competitive character essential to modern democracy. Since 1979, despite persistent challenges, Ecuador has maintained a democratic electoral framework featuring competitive multi-party elections, a pluralist public sphere, and constitutional governance.

Ecuador: National Election Results and Political Outcomes (1900–2025)

Ecuador's electoral history from 1900 to 2025 reflects a dynamic interplay of authoritarian interruptions, democratic restorations, and party realignments. From oligarchic control in the early 20th century to a vibrant, albeit turbulent, multi-party democracy by the 21st century, national elections in Ecuador have served as critical junctures in shaping its political landscape.

This article outlines key general election results across the period, highlighting party names, parliamentary seat distributions, and voter turnout where available. Due to frequent constitutional reforms and changing electoral systems, data is sometimes incomplete, particularly in the early decades.

Overview by Period

1900–1948: Oligarchy, Caudillismo, and Interrupted Democracies

During this time, elections were often symbolic or dominated by elite-controlled parties. Voter turnout was low due to limited suffrage (restricted to literate males).

1912: After Eloy Alfaro’s assassination, the Liberal Party maintained dominance.

1924: The Liberal Party continued control under Gonzalo Córdova. Elections were indirect; no national parliamentary seat data is available.

1948 General Election

This marked Ecuador’s democratic reawakening after a period of coups.

President Elected: Galo Plaza (Independent Liberal)

Turnout: Approx. 55%

Congressional Outcome:

1977 Referendum & 1978/79 Elections

After a military dictatorship (1972–1978), Ecuador transitioned back to democracy.

1977 Referendum: Approved new democratic constitution.

1978 Presidential 1st Round: Jaime Roldós Aguilera (CFP) led, followed by Sixto Durán Ballén.

1979 2nd Round Result:

Jaime Roldós (Concentration of Popular Forces, CFP): 68.4%

Sixto Durán Ballén (PSC): 31.6%

Turnout: 66%

Congressional Seats (1979):

1996 General Election

Marked the rise of populist outsider Abdalá Bucaram.

President Elected: Abdalá Bucaram (PRE)

Turnout: 65%

National Congress (104 seats):

2006 General Election

A landmark win for Rafael Correa and the start of the "Citizen Revolution".

President Elected: Rafael Correa (Alianza PAIS)

Runoff Result:

Correa: 56.7%

Álvaro Noboa (PRIAN): 43.3%

Turnout: 72%

Congressional Result:

2017 General Election

End of Correa's presidency; continuation of PAIS under Lenín Moreno.

President Elected: Lenín Moreno (PAIS Alliance)

2nd Round: Moreno: 51.1%, Guillermo Lasso: 48.9%

Turnout: 81%

National Assembly (137 seats):

2021 General Election

A right-wing shift after years of leftist leadership.

President Elected: Guillermo Lasso (CREO)

2nd Round: Lasso: 52.4%, Andrés Arauz: 47.6%

Turnout: 82.7%

National Assembly (137 seats):

2023 Snap Elections

Called after Lasso invoked the muerte cruzada (mutual dissolution).

President Elected: Daniel Noboa (National Democratic Action, ADN)

2nd Round: Noboa: 52.1%, Luisa González (Citizen Revolution): 47.9%

Turnout: 82%

National Assembly (137 seats):

From elite-dominated early 20th-century elections to volatile modern contests, Ecuador’s electoral history demonstrates a continual push for democratic representation—punctuated by authoritarian interludes and institutional reforms. While party names have changed, themes of populism, reform, and regionalism continue to define Ecuadorian politics.

For researchers, the fluctuations in seat allocations and turnout mirror both citizen engagement and trust in the evolving democratic process.

Major Parties, Leaders, and Election Outcomes in Ecuador (1900–2025)

Ecuador’s political history between 1900 and 2025 reflects a tumultuous and evolving journey from oligarchic rule to modern democracy. Over this 125-year span, major political parties, charismatic leaders, and periods of authoritarian interruption have shaped the country’s electoral outcomes. Below is a summary of key political actors and electoral results across the decades.

1900–1940: Liberal–Conservative Rivalry and Oligarchic Control

During the early 20th century, Ecuador was largely dominated by two factions:

Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Ecuatoriano)

Conservative Party (Partido Conservador Ecuatoriano)

Prominent figures included Eloy Alfaro (Liberal) and Leónidas Plaza. The Liberal Revolution had taken hold by 1895, and Alfaro’s presidency (1906–1911) led to significant secular reforms. Despite competitive elections, power often changed hands via coups or elite deals rather than true popular vote.

1940–1960: Populism and Political Fragmentation

The mid-20th century witnessed a shift:

Velasco Ibarra became a central figure, elected five times, though he completed only one term. A populist with no firm party base, he attracted mass support with anti-elite rhetoric.

Emerging parties:

Concentration of Popular Forces (CFP)

Socialist Party of Ecuador

Velasco's elections (notably in 1944 and 1952) were milestones in voter mobilisation, but his rule often ended in authoritarianism.

1960–1979: Military Rule and Constitutional Crisis

Following multiple coups, the military ruled from 1963–66 and again from 1972–79.
Notable political suspension:

1972 election was annulled, and General Guillermo Rodríguez Lara led a military government.

1979–2000: Democratic Restoration and Party Competition

With the return to democracy in 1979 under a new constitution, elections resumed:

Key parties:

Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática - ID)

Social Christian Party (PSC)

Ecuadorian Roldosist Party (PRE)

Popular Democracy (DP)

Major presidents:

Jaime Roldós (ID) – 1979

León Febres-Cordero (PSC) – 1984

Sixto Durán Ballén (DP) – 1992

Abdalá Bucaram (PRE) – 1996 (removed in 1997 amid “mental incapacity” claims)

This period featured frequent political instability, early impeachments, and weak party allegiance.

2000–2006: Economic Crisis and Indigenous Movements

The early 2000s saw a backlash to traditional parties:

Ecuador dollarised its economy in 2000 under Jamil Mahuad (ousted by a coup).

Lucio Gutiérrez, a former coup leader, was elected in 2002 but removed in 2005.

Emerging forces included:

Pachakutik Movement (indigenous)

New leftist coalitions

2006–2017: Correa Era and the Rise of PAIS Alliance

A transformative period began with:

Rafael Correa, elected in 2006 and re-elected in 2009 and 2013.

Party: PAIS Alliance (Alianza PAIS) – a left-wing nationalist coalition.

Correa implemented:

A new 2008 Constitution

Expanded executive power

Social welfare reforms under the “Citizens’ Revolution”

He stepped down in 2017, endorsing Lenín Moreno, who later distanced himself from Correa’s legacy.

2017–2021: Shift from Correa’s Legacy

Lenín Moreno (PAIS) won in 2017.

He reversed several Correa-era policies and faced protests over fuel subsidies.

By 2021, Correa's influence had waned, and PAIS disintegrated.

2021–2023: Centre-Right Returns

Guillermo Lasso (CREO party) – a centre-right banker – won the 2021 election, defeating leftist candidate Andrés Arauz (backed by Correa).

Lasso's term was marked by:

Security crises

Attempted reforms

Dissolution of the National Assembly in 2023 (muerte cruzada)

2023–2025: Noboa Presidency and the Centre-Right Consolidation

Daniel Noboa, son of businessman Álvaro Noboa, won the 2023 snap election.

Party: National Democratic Action (ADN)

At 35 years old, he became the youngest president in Ecuadorian history.

His term began amid:

A violent wave of cartel-related crime

Promises of economic modernisation

Political fragmentation

Between 1900 and 2025, Ecuador has moved from elite-controlled, military-interrupted elections to a robust—though still fragile—democracy. Charismatic individuals like Eloy Alfaro, Velasco Ibarra, and Rafael Correa dominated their eras, while political parties often evolved or collapsed with their leaders. As of 2025, Ecuador’s politics remain fluid, with new movements and generational leaders continuing to redefine the national electoral landscape.

Electoral Violence & Violations in Ecuador (1900–2025): A Historical Overview

Ecuador’s democratic journey has been repeatedly disrupted by episodes of political instability, electoral irregularities, violence, and, at times, annulled or boycotted elections. From military coups to protests over alleged fraud, the country’s electoral process has often been marked by turbulence rather than tranquillity. This article outlines notable instances of electoral violence, irregularities, and annulments from 1900 to 2025.

Reported Electoral Irregularities and Violence: Key Examples

1944 “La Gloriosa” and Aftermath

Though not a direct election, the 1944 revolution known as La Gloriosa was triggered by deep dissatisfaction with President Arroyo del Río’s attempts to manipulate the 1944 elections through fraud and repression. His downfall led to José María Velasco Ibarra’s return to power. The surrounding period was marred by violence, arbitrary arrests, and politically motivated killings.

1960s and 1970s: Military Suspensions of Democracy

During this era, democratic elections were frequently suspended. Military regimes often interfered in electoral processes, either cancelling them outright or ensuring their preferred candidates were installed. Elections during these decades were neither free nor fair, with political opponents suppressed and civil liberties curtailed.

1996 General Elections – Allegations of Fraud

The 1996 presidential elections, in which Abdalá Bucaram was elected, were overshadowed by accusations of vote-buying and fraud, particularly in the second round. Though no formal annulment occurred, protests erupted against the legitimacy of Bucaram’s victory, contributing to his impeachment just months later in early 1997.

2000: Political Crisis and Civil Uprising

The 1998–2000 political climate saw growing dissatisfaction with President Jamil Mahuad’s administration, leading to a coup d'état in January 2000. While not during an election year, the political upheaval reflected a crisis in institutional credibility, further weakening public trust in electoral processes.

2006 Elections – Vote Count Disputes

Rafael Correa's first-round performance in 2006 faced allegations of vote count manipulation. The Supreme Electoral Tribunal initially delayed confirmation of results due to inconsistencies in vote tallies and missing documentation. While Correa eventually won the run-off, tensions ran high throughout the process.

2017 Presidential Election – Accusations of Fraud

One of the most controversial elections in Ecuador's recent history, the 2017 run-off between Lenín Moreno and Guillermo Lasso, was marked by widespread claims of vote rigging. Lasso alleged systematic fraud after early results were delayed and later reversed in favour of Moreno. Protests broke out nationwide, and although no violence on a large scale was reported, public trust in the electoral council was severely undermined.

2023 Assassination of Presidential Candidate Fernando Villavicencio

Perhaps the most shocking act of electoral violence occurred during the 2023 general election campaign. Fernando Villavicencio, a prominent anti-corruption presidential candidate, was assassinated just weeks before the vote. The killing sent shockwaves through the nation and raised serious questions about the state’s ability to guarantee democratic safety and security. The incident also sparked emergency measures, including tightened security at polling stations and debates over electoral integrity amid drug cartel infiltration into politics.

Annulled, Delayed, or Boycotted Elections in Ecuador (1900–2025)

Ecuador’s electoral history reflects a broader narrative of fragile democracy punctuated by periods of repression, manipulation, and at times, courageous reform. Though the nation has made strides in democratic consolidation, events like the 2023 assassination highlight that electoral violence remains a serious challenge. Understanding these episodes is essential for grasping the country’s ongoing struggle to safeguard the integrity and safety of its democratic process.

Ecuador’s Electoral Democracy: Democracy Index & Reforms from 1900 to 2025

Ecuador’s journey through electoral democracy from 1900 to 2025 has been anything but linear. Characterised by cycles of authoritarianism, populism, military intervention, democratic resurgence, and institutional reform, Ecuador’s fluctuating position on global democracy indices reflects its ongoing struggle to balance political participation, representation, and institutional legitimacy. This article examines Ecuador’s democratic performance, major reforms, and instances of democratic backsliding over the past 125 years.

Early 20th Century (1900–1944): Limited Participation and Elite Control

At the start of the 20th century, Ecuador’s political system was more oligarchic than democratic. Elections were dominated by elites from the Liberal and Conservative parties, with limited suffrage and little transparency. Voting was restricted mainly to literate men, excluding the vast majority of the population.

There was no democracy index in this period, but by modern standards, Ecuador would have ranked very low in terms of electoral democracy. Political violence and coups were common, and the lack of institutional safeguards meant that elections often served to legitimise existing power rather than reflect public will.

1944–1972: Short-lived Democratic Experiment and Populism

The “La Gloriosa” revolution of 1944 marked a brief democratic revival. The rise of José María Velasco Ibarra, with his populist rhetoric and mass appeal, brought elections closer to the people, although his repeated removal from office by the military reflected the fragility of democratic rule. Electoral reforms expanded the franchise, including women's suffrage in 1929 and more transparent voter registration systems in the 1950s.

However, the era was unstable. Between 1944 and 1972, Ecuador had over 20 presidents, and military interventions frequently interrupted democratic processes. Electoral democracy during this time was patchy, improving briefly before collapsing again under authoritarian pressure.

1972–1979: Authoritarian Backslide under Military Rule

From 1972 to 1979, Ecuador was under military dictatorship. Elections were suspended, political parties suppressed, and civil liberties restricted. The absence of electoral competition and a functioning parliament placed Ecuador firmly in the category of authoritarian regimes.

If the Democracy Index had existed, Ecuador would have scored poorly on political participation, pluralism, and electoral integrity during this period.

1979–2006: Democratic Transition and Institutional Weakness

Democracy was formally restored in 1979 with a new constitution and competitive elections. Ecuador was lauded for returning to civilian rule and holding relatively free elections. However, its democracy was marred by weak institutions, widespread corruption, political clientelism, and short presidential terms.

Between 1996 and 2006, three presidents were removed before completing their terms, reflecting persistent political instability. While elections remained regular and largely competitive, governance was often reactive and volatile.

According to later Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) Democracy Index rankings, Ecuador during this period hovered around the “hybrid regime” category—reflecting an electoral system in place but with significant deficiencies in civil liberties and checks on executive power.

2007–2017: Democratic Consolidation or Authoritarian Drift?

The election of Rafael Correa in 2006 marked a new phase. Backed by a left-wing coalition, Correa initiated a wide-ranging constitutional reform in 2008, increasing state control over the economy and redistributing power away from traditional elites.

While the reforms improved social inclusion and electoral access, critics argued that the Correa government concentrated power in the executive, curtailed press freedom, and weakened judicial independence. Electoral processes remained functional, but opposition voices were marginalised.

During this time, the EIU Democracy Index rated Ecuador in the “hybrid regime” category, scoring low on “functioning of government” and “civil liberties,” despite maintaining competitive elections.

2017–2023: Post-Correa Openness and Renewed Challenges

Lenín Moreno’s presidency (2017–2021) attempted to reverse some of Correa’s centralisation efforts by reintroducing judicial reforms and expanding press freedoms. However, economic crises and political fragmentation continued to test democratic institutions.

By 2022, Ecuador was ranked 99th out of 167 countries in the EIU Democracy Index, with a score of 5.37, firmly placing it within the hybrid regime category. The country scored moderately in electoral processes but poorly in political culture and government functionality.

2023–2025: Violence, Reform, and Uncertainty

The assassination of presidential candidate Fernando Villavicencio in 2023 shocked the nation and exposed how criminal networks had penetrated political life. The government declared a state of emergency, and while elections continued, voter confidence was shaken.

President Daniel Noboa (elected in late 2023) launched reforms aimed at restoring public trust and combating corruption. These included proposals to strengthen electoral oversight and depoliticise the judiciary. However, threats from organised crime and public security crises posed significant risks to democratic stability.

As of 2025, Ecuador is considered a fragile democracy. While formal electoral mechanisms are intact, underlying vulnerabilities—including corruption, institutional weakness, and political violence—remain.

Key Democratic Reforms in Ecuador (1900–2025)

Ecuador’s history of electoral democracy is one of reform tempered by relapse. While its elections have become increasingly participatory and regular, true democratic consolidation remains elusive. The country has made important strides—particularly in expanding voter inclusion and holding regular elections—but the persistence of political instability, institutional fragility, and violent threats continue to test the resilience of its democratic system.

Major Electoral Reforms in Ecuador (1900–2025)

Ecuador's electoral history is punctuated by cycles of authoritarianism, populism, and democratic reform. From the dawn of the 20th century to the modern digital age, the country has witnessed substantial transformations in its electoral system. These reforms have aimed to enhance fairness, expand suffrage, limit executive power, and modernise election processes.

This article traces the most significant electoral reforms in Ecuador from 1900 to 2025.

Early 20th Century: Oligarchic Dominance and Restricted Suffrage

At the start of the 20th century, Ecuador’s electoral system was dominated by elite politics. The 1906 Constitution under Eloy Alfaro introduced some progressive elements:

Secular voting rights: Church influence on electoral matters was curtailed.

Literacy requirements: Voting was limited to literate male citizens, restricting wider participation.

Despite these changes, elections remained largely uncompetitive, with real power controlled by the Liberal or Conservative elite.

1929: Women’s Suffrage Introduced

In a landmark reform, Ecuador became the first Latin American country to grant women the right to vote, in 1929, under President Isidro Ayora:

Initially limited to literate women.

Universal suffrage for women and men was not fully realised until later decades.

This reform signalled Ecuador’s early commitment—at least formally—to inclusive democratic principles.

1945–1946: Democratic Constitution and Electoral Expansion

Following the overthrow of authoritarian governments during World War II, Ecuador’s 1945 Constitution:

Reaffirmed universal suffrage (for literate adults).

Provided greater electoral autonomy through institutional changes.

Expanded the role of political parties, although their operations remained weak and personalised.

1967–1978: Authoritarian Interruptions and Electoral Stagnation

Throughout this period, repeated military coups led to the suspension of democratic processes:

No meaningful electoral reform occurred under the military regimes.

The 1972 election was annulled by the military, delaying progress towards electoral democracy.

1978–1979: Return to Democracy and New Electoral Framework

The 1978–1979 transition to democracy introduced a modern electoral system:

New Electoral Tribunal (TSE) created as an autonomous body to oversee elections.

Adoption of two-round presidential voting to ensure majority-backed leadership.

Proportional representation system strengthened for National Congress elections.

Suffrage was extended to include illiterate citizens, broadening electoral participation.

These reforms laid the foundation for Ecuador’s contemporary democratic system.

1998 Constitution: Human Rights and Electoral Integrity

The 1998 Constitution introduced reforms emphasising transparency and citizen participation:

Enhanced role of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) in monitoring party financing.

Guaranteed political pluralism and gender parity in candidate lists (though compliance remained limited).

Legalised dual nationality, allowing expatriate Ecuadorians to vote abroad.

2008 Constitution: Citizen Revolution and Restructuring of Electoral System

Under President Rafael Correa, the 2008 Constitution significantly reshaped the electoral landscape:

Created the National Electoral Council (CNE) and Contentious Electoral Tribunal (TCE) to replace the TSE.

Enshrined the “plurinational” character of the state, mandating indigenous representation.

Enforced compulsory voting for all citizens aged 18 to 65.

Lowered the voting age to 16, making Ecuador one of the first Latin American countries to do so.

Introduced gender quotas for electoral lists (minimum 50% female candidates, alternated by gender).

These changes aimed to decentralise power, promote diversity, and enhance democratic participation.

2011 Referendum: Media Regulation and Political Reform

A controversial referendum under Correa brought about:

Restrictions on media ownership by financial groups, affecting political influence.

Judicial Council reform, allowing more executive control over appointments (indirect electoral impact).

Critics argued these reforms risked democratic backsliding by undermining institutional independence.

2022–2023: Digitalisation and Diaspora Voting Enhancements

In response to calls for modernisation and greater diaspora engagement, the CNE introduced:

Digital voter registration systems.

Expansion of electronic and remote voting for Ecuadorians abroad.

Tighter controls on campaign financing and disinformation through social media regulations.

2023–2025: Institutional Adjustment and Electoral Integrity

Under President Daniel Noboa, further electoral measures were debated:

Proposals for electoral district reform to reduce party fragmentation.

Enhancements to anti-corruption protocols in campaign finance.

Electoral oversight mechanisms were strengthened in response to prior controversies involving political violence and candidate assassinations (e.g. Fernando Villavicencio in 2023).

Ecuador’s electoral journey from 1900 to 2025 has been one of gradual, though uneven, progress. From the early limitations of elite-controlled suffrage to a modern constitution recognising gender parity, youth voting, and indigenous representation, the country has sought to build a more inclusive and transparent electoral system.

Yet challenges remain: political volatility, populism, and weak institutional trust continue to test these reforms. As Ecuador heads into future elections, its resilience will depend not just on legal frameworks but on the credibility and independence of its electoral institutions.

Ecuador’s political evolution from 1900 to 2025 mirrors the country’s struggle between authoritarianism and democracy. A century-long arc saw Ecuador transition from elitist electoral structures with highly restricted suffrage to a robust, though imperfect, multiparty democracy. This article compares the electoral systems in place in Ecuador in 1900 and in 2025, assessing which system was more democratic based on electoral inclusiveness, competitiveness, fairness, and institutional integrity.

Electoral System in 1900: Oligarchic Liberalism

Key Features:

Type of Governance: Oligarchic republic under Liberal Party dominance

Suffrage: Highly restricted — literate adult males only; Indigenous and poor mestizo populations largely excluded

Voting Method: Indirect voting in many cases; local elites often controlled results

Political Competition: Dominated by the Liberal Party post-1895 Revolution

Electoral Oversight: Virtually nonexistent; electoral fraud and coercion commonplace

Freedom of the Press and Association: Severely limited; opposition press faced repression

Representation: Skewed heavily in favour of land-owning elites in urban centres

Assessment:

Ecuador’s electoral system in 1900 was nominal at best. Though elections occurred, they were deeply flawed, exclusionary, and designed to consolidate Liberal power. The system lacked transparency, competitive pluralism, and did not reflect the will of the broader population.

Electoral System in 2025: Competitive, Participatory Democracy

Key Features:

Type of Governance: Presidential republic with universal suffrage (18+), including for illiterate voters and Indigenous peoples

Voting Method: Two-round system for presidential elections; proportional representation for National Assembly (using D'Hondt method)

Political Competition: Vibrant multiparty system with left-wing, right-wing, Indigenous, and centrist parties

Electoral Oversight: Conducted by the Consejo Nacional Electoral (CNE) — an autonomous electoral authority

Transparency & Accountability: Ballots are secret; digital and manual counting monitored by national and international observers

Turnout Trends: Historically high (often over 70%), with mandatory voting laws in place

Minority Participation: Increased Indigenous and female representation in parliament

Assessment:

By 2025, Ecuador had established a significantly more inclusive, transparent, and participatory electoral system. Although political polarisation and judicial interference occasionally undermine trust, the core principles of democratic electoral integrity are widely respected.

Key Differences in Democratic Quality

2025 Is More Democratic

The contrast is stark: Ecuador in 1900 had the trappings of electoralism without the substance of democracy. It was an exclusive, elite-controlled system operating under the guise of liberalism. In contrast, Ecuador in 2025 possesses the institutional frameworks and civic inclusiveness characteristic of modern democracies. While challenges remain—such as corruption, political fragmentation, and institutional mistrust—the electoral system in 2025 is undoubtedly more democratic than it was in 1900.

Which Countries Had Their First Democratic Election in the 20th Century – And Under What System?

The 20th century marked a decisive turning point in the global expansion of electoral democracy. As empires collapsed, colonies gained independence, and authoritarian regimes fell, numerous countries held their first democratic elections. These elections often varied widely in terms of voting systems, suffrage rights, and institutional guarantees of democracy.

Below is a concise exploration of selected countries that held their first democratic election in the 20th century, along with the electoral systems under which these landmark votes occurred.

Germany – 1919

System: Proportional Representation (PR)

Context: Following World War I and the fall of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic was born. In 1919, Germany held its first democratic national election for the Weimar National Assembly. Women were enfranchised for the first time, and a system of proportional representation was introduced to reflect Germany’s political pluralism.

India – 1951–52

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: After gaining independence from British colonial rule in 1947, India held its first general elections in 1951–52 under a parliamentary system. Universal adult suffrage was granted, making it one of the most ambitious democratic exercises in history at the time.

Japan – 1946

System: Limited FPTP with multi-member constituencies

Context: Following defeat in World War II and occupation by Allied forces, Japan restructured its political system. The 1946 general election was the first with female suffrage and was conducted under U.S.-guided democratic reforms.

Ghana – 1951

System: Single-Member Plurality (FPTP)

Context: Ghana (then the Gold Coast) held its first election with some degree of internal self-rule under British colonial administration. It marked the beginning of electoral democracy in sub-Saharan Africa. Full independence followed in 1957.

South Korea – 1948

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: In the aftermath of Japanese occupation and the division of the Korean Peninsula, South Korea conducted its first national elections in 1948. It laid the foundation for a republic, though the country would later face long periods of military rule.

Israel – 1949

System: Nationwide Proportional Representation

Context: Following the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the first Knesset elections were held in 1949 with a pure PR system and low electoral threshold, fostering a highly pluralistic parliament.

Indonesia – 1955

System: List Proportional Representation

Context: Indonesia’s first democratic elections were held a decade after its independence from Dutch rule. Although the process was widely hailed for its fairness, political instability led to democratic backsliding in the following years.

Nigeria – 1959

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: Conducted just before independence in 1960, Nigeria’s first federal election under British supervision used the Westminster model. Ethnic and regional tensions, however, soon challenged democratic consolidation.

Sri Lanka (Ceylon) – 1931

System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

Context: Sri Lanka was a pioneer in Asian democracy. The 1931 election for the State Council introduced universal adult suffrage, remarkably ahead of many Western states.

 Namibia – 1989

System: Proportional Representation

Context: After years of apartheid and South African occupation, Namibia held its first democratic elections in 1989 under UN supervision. The process was hailed as a model for post-colonial transitions.

Final Reflections

The voting systems employed in these inaugural democratic elections reflect a diverse spectrum: from First-Past-The-Post to various forms of Proportional Representation, often influenced by colonial legacies, occupation authorities, or negotiated transitions. While some countries sustained democratic practices, others faced setbacks due to coups, civil war, or authoritarian regression.

Nonetheless, the 20th century was fundamentally shaped by the spread of democratic elections, laying the foundation for the global electoral norms seen in the 21st century.

Timeline of Major Elections and Political Turning Points in Ecuador (1900–2025)

Ecuador’s electoral history from 1900 to 2025 is marked by military coups, constitutional overhauls, populist uprisings, and a long struggle between authoritarianism and democracy. This timeline highlights the key elections and political events that shaped Ecuador's evolving electoral landscape.

1900–1944: Oligarchic Republic and Political Instability

1901 – Presidential Election: Leónidas Plaza elected under a restricted, elite-based electoral system. Voting limited to literate males.

1912 – Assassination of Eloy Alfaro, liberal reformist leader; sparked prolonged political instability.

1925 – Julian Revolution: Military officers staged a coup against banking oligarchs, ending the Liberal hegemony.

1931–1944 – Frequent changes in leadership, military interventions, and short-lived presidencies with limited or no electoral legitimacy.

1944–1978: Democratic Openings and Authoritarian Reversals

1944 – Glorious May Revolution: Overthrow of Arroyo del Río; José María Velasco Ibarra returned to power.

1948 – Presidential Election: Galo Plaza Lasso elected in a relatively free and fair election, initiating moderate democratic reform.

1960 & 1968 – Velasco Ibarra elected twice: His five non-consecutive presidencies epitomised personalist rule; often ruled by decree.

1963–1966 – Military Junta: Democracy suspended; elections cancelled.

1972 – Coup before Elections: Velasco Ibarra overthrown; General Guillermo Rodríguez Lara assumed power, delaying democratic transition.

1979–1997: Return to Civilian Rule and Constitutional Reform

1979 – Democratic Restoration: New constitution; Jaime Roldós elected president via popular vote—first free election in decades.

1984 – León Febres Cordero elected: Conservative leader ushered in economic liberalisation and harsh opposition crackdowns.

1996 – Abdalá Bucaram elected: His populist presidency collapsed within a year amid corruption scandals; Congress declared him mentally unfit to rule.

1998–2006: Democratic Crisis and Party System Collapse

1998 – Constitutional Reform & Election: Jamil Mahuad elected; adoption of open-list proportional representation.

2000 – Mahuad overthrown in coup: Lucio Gutiérrez, a former colonel, gained prominence.

2002 – Gutiérrez elected: Backed by indigenous movements, but later alienated his base, leading to protests.

2005 – Gutiérrez ousted: Parliament removed him amid massive demonstrations.

2007–2017: The Correa Era and the Citizen Revolution

2006 – Rafael Correa elected: A left-wing economist, he rejected traditional parties and launched constitutional overhaul.

2008 – New Constitution: Approved via referendum; expanded presidential powers, introduced new electoral system.

2009 – Correa re-elected: Under new constitutional rules, marking start of his second official term.

2013 – Correa wins third term: Amid accusations of authoritarian tendencies and centralised power.

2017–2021: Post-Correa Realignment

2017 – Lenín Moreno elected: Initially seen as Correa’s ally, he distanced himself and reversed many of Correa’s policies.

2018 – Referendum: Voters approved term limits, effectively barring Correa’s return.

2021 – Guillermo Lasso elected: First centre-right president in two decades; won after runoff against leftist Andrés Arauz.

2023–2025: Snap Elections and Security Crisis

2023 – Lasso dissolves National Assembly via "muerte cruzada" (mutual death) and calls early elections amid impeachment proceedings.

2023 (Aug–Oct) – Early Elections: Daniel Noboa elected president at age 35—youngest in Ecuador’s history; campaign dominated by rising gang violence and assassination of candidate Fernando Villavicencio.

2025 – Scheduled General Elections: Due by late 2025 unless another political disruption occurs. Expected to test Noboa’s reforms and the durability of democratic norms in a volatile security environment.

Ecuador's electoral history is one of frequent interruptions and rebirths. From early 20th-century elite-dominated elections to the populist waves and constitutional transformations of the 21st century, Ecuador’s democracy remains fragile but resilient. Electoral reforms—especially post-1979—have significantly broadened participation, although instability continues to challenge democratic consolidation.

Major Global Electoral Events That Reshaped Democracy in Ecuador (1900–2025)

Ecuador’s political landscape throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries has been profoundly influenced by key electoral events, including revolutions, coups, and constitutional reforms. These moments have shaped the country’s democratic trajectory, alternating between periods of authoritarian control and democratic experimentation. Below is an overview of the most significant events that transformed Ecuador’s democracy from 1900 to 2025.

The Liberal Revolution and Early 20th-Century Political Reform (1900–1925)

Though predating formal mass democracy, the Liberal Revolution in the late 19th and early 20th centuries established the framework for future political contestation. The assassination of progressive leader Eloy Alfaro in 1912 sparked intense political upheaval, highlighting the deep divisions between conservative and liberal forces. Electoral processes remained limited and elite-controlled, with voting rights restricted mainly to literate males.

The 1925 Julian Revolution

This military-led coup overthrew the traditional oligarchic order, signalling the beginning of increased military involvement in politics. While it disrupted electoral continuity, it opened space for more institutional reforms and expanded suffrage debates, setting the stage for future democratic transitions.

The 1944 “Glorious May” Revolution

This popular uprising ousted the authoritarian government of Carlos Arroyo del Río and marked the start of a period of democratic restoration. It reinstated José María Velasco Ibarra as president through an election seen as relatively freer than previous ones, reasserting civilian rule after years of political instability.

Military Coups and Interruptions of Democracy (1963 and 1972)

Ecuador experienced multiple military coups in the 1960s and early 1970s that suspended democratic governance and elections. The 1963 coup toppled President Carlos Julio Arosemena, leading to military juntas ruling without electoral legitimacy until 1979. The 1972 coup interrupted a return to civilian rule, delaying democratic development for nearly a decade.

The 1979 Return to Democracy

Following years of military dictatorship, the 1979 Constitution marked Ecuador’s return to civilian democratic rule, reintroducing presidential and legislative elections. Jaime Roldós Aguilera’s election symbolised a commitment to democratic governance, with universal suffrage and institutional reforms that laid the foundation for modern Ecuadorian democracy.

The 1998 Electoral and Constitutional Reform

The 1998 Constitution introduced significant changes to the electoral system, including open-list proportional representation for the legislature and measures to improve transparency and political pluralism. This reform aimed to stabilise Ecuador’s fragmented party system and address voter dissatisfaction.

The 2000 Coup and Political Crisis

The overthrow of President Jamil Mahuad by a combined military and indigenous movement in 2000 reflected deep social unrest and a crisis of legitimacy. The coup disrupted electoral continuity and forced a re-evaluation of political institutions, eventually leading to further reforms.

The 2008 Constitution and “Citizen Revolution”

Under President Rafael Correa, the 2008 Constitution dramatically reshaped Ecuador’s democracy by expanding executive power, introducing new electoral rules, and increasing citizen participation. It established a unicameral National Assembly elected through a mixed proportional system and set legal frameworks for social inclusion and environmental rights.

The 2018 Referendum on Term Limits

This referendum reinstated presidential term limits, preventing former President Correa from seeking office again. It was a critical moment in Ecuadorian democracy, balancing the concentration of power with mechanisms to preserve democratic rotation and accountability.

The 2023 “Muerte Cruzada” and Early Elections

In response to political deadlock and impeachment threats, President Guillermo Lasso invoked the constitutional mechanism of “muerte cruzada” (mutual dissolution), dissolving the National Assembly and calling early elections. This unprecedented move tested Ecuador’s democratic institutions amid rising security challenges and political fragmentation.

Ecuador’s democratic development has been shaped by a cyclical pattern of reform and disruption. Key electoral events—including revolutions, coups, and constitutional overhauls—have alternately expanded and constrained democratic participation. Despite recurring challenges, Ecuador’s resilience lies in its continued efforts to strengthen electoral systems, safeguard suffrage, and adapt democratic governance to social realities.

Ecuador General Elections 1900–2025

Voter turnout figures are approximate, drawn from official electoral reports and secondary sources where direct data is unavailable.

Electoral systems evolved notably after 1979 with the introduction of proportional representation for legislative seats.

The "Ruling Party" indicates the winning or dominant party following the election, which often shifted quickly in periods of instability.

This table provides a snapshot of Ecuador’s complex electoral history, highlighting shifts from restricted majoritarian systems to more inclusive proportional representation and fluctuating political landscapes.

Global Electoral Trends in Ecuador by Decade (1900–2025)

Ecuador’s political and electoral landscape over the last century-plus reflects broader global patterns of democratisation, authoritarian backsliding, and institutional innovation. This article summarises these trends by decade, highlighting how Ecuador’s electoral evolution has mirrored and diverged from global currents.

1900s–1910s: Oligarchic Control and Limited Electoral Participation

Global context: Many countries were dominated by elites with restricted suffrage; universal suffrage was rare.

Ecuador: Elections were controlled by Liberal and Conservative elites. Voting was limited to literate male property owners. The period featured elite-dominated politics with minimal mass participation.

1920s: Early Expansion of Suffrage and Women’s Voting Rights

Global context: Post-World War I, many democracies expanded suffrage, notably for women (e.g., UK in 1918).

Ecuador: Became the first Latin American country to grant women the vote in 1929, albeit limited to literate women. This was a pioneering move in the region.

1930s–1940s: Political Instability and Democratization Waves

Global context: The Great Depression and World War II disrupted many democracies; however, post-war era saw renewed democratic efforts.

Ecuador: Experienced political instability with coups and populist leaders like Velasco Ibarra rising. Suffrage expanded to more citizens, though authoritarian interruptions persisted.

1950s–1960s: Authoritarian Rollbacks and Military Coups

Global context: The Cold War saw numerous authoritarian regimes and military dictatorships, especially in Latin America.

Ecuador: Military coups (1963 and 1972) interrupted democratic governance. Elections were suspended or heavily controlled. Institutional development stalled.

1970s: Return to Democracy and Electoral Reforms

Global context: Globally, the 1970s marked a resurgence of democracy in many countries.

Ecuador: Transitioned back to civilian rule by 1979. Significant reforms included establishing autonomous electoral bodies, universal suffrage (including illiterates), and proportional representation, aligning with global democratization waves.

1980s–1990s: Consolidation of Democracy and Political Fragmentation

Global context: Many nations strengthened democratic institutions, though political fragmentation increased.

Ecuador: Saw multi-party competition, but also instability with impeachments and short-lived governments. Electoral reforms introduced greater transparency but challenges remained with corruption and weak parties.

2000s: Crisis, Populism, and New Democratic Models

Global context: Populism surged worldwide, and democracies faced legitimacy crises.

Ecuador: Dollarisation (2000), coups, and social unrest occurred. Rafael Correa’s leftist government (from 2006) introduced a new constitution emphasising citizen participation, indigenous rights, and compulsory voting, reflecting innovative democratic experimentation seen globally.

2010s: Electoral Modernisation and Polarisation

Global context: Democracies worldwide adopted digital technologies but faced rising polarisation.

Ecuador: The 2008 Constitution’s reforms matured, but political polarisation increased between Correa’s supporters and opponents. Electoral bodies modernised voter registration and attempted to regulate campaign financing.

2020s: Digital Voting, Political Fragmentation, and Security Challenges

Global context: Democracies confronted disinformation, digital manipulation, and institutional mistrust.

Ecuador: Expanded digital voting initiatives, introduced diaspora voting reforms, and grappled with political violence (notably the assassination of candidate Fernando Villavicencio in 2023). Fragmented party systems and social unrest reflected global democratic challenges.

Summary

Ecuador’s electoral history mirrors global trends: early restricted suffrage gave way to expanded participation, interrupted by authoritarian interludes typical of many Latin American countries during the Cold War. Since the late 20th century, the country has embraced democratic reforms, institutional strengthening, and electoral innovations, even as it confronts political volatility and challenges to electoral integrity common worldwide.

As Ecuador continues to navigate these dynamics, its experience provides a telling case study of the global struggle between democratization and authoritarian rollback across more than a century.

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